Tiredness

From my experience:

When an athlete is tired from a heavy training load (despite good rest) they will be able to row well and achieve good training speeds at lower rates and intensities but if asked to do high intensity and high rate pieces they will not be able to produce the boat speed required. They may struggle to achieve rates they would normally comfortably row in races.

If they are however tired from not enough rest (such as a late night partying the night before) then they will struggle with the lower intensity paddling as they find it difficult to maintain focus but if asked to do shorter higher intensity pieces can generally achieve good speeds.

Knowing the difference between these two symptoms is important as it can help the coach identify whether the problem is UNDER RECOVERY or OVER TRAINING/OVER REACHING

The link between core stability, strength, endurance, flexibility and posture

The link between core stability, strength, endurance, flexibility and posture -

From Rowing & Regatta Magazine, Jan 2006, pp 26-27

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If you took time to sketch a good body-position at the finish of a rowing or sculling stroke it is likely that it will have a perfectly straight back, and can pivot from the hips. Yet rowers in real life are more complicated than this; they have a pelvis that tilts, and a spine that bends!

Whether rowing or coaching, you need to be aware of the movements of the pelvis and spine, particularly the lower back (lumber spine). The degree of bend and development of bend at the lower back vs the pivot of the hips is known as the lumbo-pelvic rhythm.

When looking out for rowing technique, it can help to think of rowers as being like the slightly more complex stick man pictured;

Good body position at the finish
The back is straight and in a strong position. The pelvis and lumber spine are lined up with each other. There is no slumping.

Poor body position at the finish
In this example, the rower is slumped at the finish. Their pelvis is rotated backwards and is not in line with their lumber spine. They will be sitting on the fleshy part of their bottom. They are also bending (flexing) their lumber spine.

Look out for movement in a rower’s lumber spine and pelvis; is their pelvis slumped? Is their lumber spine flexed? Does this happen as they get more tired?


Rowers have muscles!
Unlike stick men, rowers have muscles. They can be big or small, active or inactive, strong or weak, have high or low endurance, be involved in moving or in stabilizing, and be stronger or weaker than opposing muscles. That’s a lot of complexity! When writing a training program coaches often focus on developing muscles strength and endurance rather than considering other ways to training muscles.

For example you need to train your core trunk muscles to be active and to develop their strength and endurance. This involves training both the deep stabilizing muscles and the other abdominal muscles; to better balance your trunk strength and endurance with your back strength and endurance.

Muscular imbalance and weakness affect flexibility, rowing posture and technique. Good examples of this are the hamstring muscles and hip flexors. If rowers neglect to develop the muscles that stabilize the pelvis, the hamstrings and hip flexors will take up the role of stabilizers and be more active which over time, can lead to them shortening. Many rowers have short hamstrings and hip flexors. Freeing these muscles from overwork (by activating and training the stabilizing muscles) means they can stretch and lengthen, which will allow the postures required for good rowing technique to be achieved and maintained. You must train stability, strength and endurance to allow the muscles to be stretched.

What do the hamstrings do?
The hamstrings shorten to extend the thigh and flex the knee, and help to extend the hips so the opposite movements to these can be used as stretches.

What will stretch hamstrings?

Develop core stability, strength and endurance first!
The hamstrings can be lengthened ad stretched by combinations of;
-Pivoting forwards from the hips (trunk flexion)
-Raising the knee (hip flexion)
-Extending the leg at the knee (leg extension)

TOP TIPS
What to Do in Practice…

1. Learn how to activate the appropriate muscles
Rowers have releatively weak trunk flexors in comparison to their back extensor muscles. Make sure that you develop an ability to activate the deep stabilizing muscles of the spine (core stability) and trunk muscles (flexors and extensors) and then develop their strength and endurance.

2. Look out for the lumbar spine
If you are a coach, think of rowers as being more than complicated stick figures (pictured); observe the amount of pelvic tilt and any bend at their lumbar spine, and note when this occurs in the recovery.

If you are a rower get your coach to video you and to look at the body movement that you obtain; is it pivot from the hips, or are you compensating and bending from the lumbar spine or reaching from the shoulders?

3. Monitor the effects of fatigue!
Rowers might start off with good stickman-esque posture in an outing, but poor core stability, trunk strength and/or endurance may mean that their body positions and sequencing degrades.

Capture some video early in the outing and some towards the end; are there changes in the postures? For how long can the posture be maintained?

With fatigue and at higher rates, rowers tend to tilt their pelvis forward less coming to the catch, and increase the bend at their lower back to compensate, making the spine work through a larger range of motion; look out for changes throughout and outing.

Think about your drills

Think about your drills
From Coach Boat View – Canadian Coaching Newsletter, Fall 2001.
By Carolyn Trono, Coach and Athlete Development Consultant pp 18
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THINK ABOUT YOUR DRILLS
Drills play an important role in helping sport participants learn motor skills. Whether the participant is a beginner or an elite athlete, coaches
and instructors are notorious for inventing creative drills to help athletes perfect a motor skill. Normally, coaches and instructors have a good reason for asking rowers to do a drill. Sometimes a drill can help the rower isolate and work on a certain movement pattern. Sometimes, a drill is used to teach skills to a novice rower. And sometimes, the drill is used to help an athlete correct incorrect movement patterns.

Here are a few considerations about drilling that coaches and instructors should be aware of prior to giving athletes drills to do.

1.UNDERSTAND WHY YOU ARE ASKING PARTICIPANTS TO DO A DRILL.
You should be able to communicate this to the participants. This is important so that the rower can focus their attention on the correct part of the stroke and the movement pattern that is being refined.

2. RECOGNIZE THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF LEARNING AND THESE STAGES REQUIRE DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS FOR LEARNING.
When someone is learning a new skill or changing a motor pattern, they are considered to be in the “early” stage (cognitive stage). At this stage, the participant is concentrating so hard on mastering the skill that any type of distractions (wind, noise, rough water) can interfere with this process. If the boat is rocking and unstable, the rower will have difficulty focusing on the skill that is being taught. Another important consideration at this stage is that the dominant sensory modality is visual. The participant needs to be able to get a visual sense of what is required for the skill. Therefore, demonstrations are helpful and the participant should be encouraged to watch his/her oar when doing drills. As a participant gets more experience, he/she will appreciate more auditory and kinesthetic cues.

3.ADAPT THE DRILLS TO THE SKILL/EXPERIENCE LEVEL OF PARTICIPANTS.
The Canadian National Rowing Team may do a drill that is suitable for them and helps these athletes to refine skills. However, this doesn’t mean that all athletes at all levels should do it. For inexperienced rowers, it is important to minimize the variables that the rower has to contend with when doing a drill. Here is an example. The pause drill is used very frequently. I have seen National team rowers do this drill with a double pause every second stroke. For an inexperienced crew, I would suggest having half of the crew, not row and concentrate on holding the boat balanced. The rest of the group would row and do the drill, with one pause every stroke. In this way, the rowers do not have to worry about balance. They only have to pause once and don’t have to worry about counting every second stroke.

4.TRY TO IDENTIFY THE PREFERRED SENSORY MODALITY OF THE PARTICIPANTS.
Researchers suggest that everyone has a preferred sensory modality - auditory, visual or kinesthetic. By using a variety of modalities in the coaching repertoire, the coach is likely to provide cues for all three modalities. For example, a visual learner learns best by seeing demonstrations, looking at videos and watching his/her oar. A kinesthetic learner learns best by doing. Sometimes this means that the coach must adjust positions to help the rower get the “feeling” of the correct movement pattern. An auditory learner does quite well with verbal cues and feedback. Sometimes listening for the correct sound helps such as the “plop” sound when the blade drops into the water properly.

Go Small Before You Go Big!

Go Small Before You Go Big! - Why the Canadian National Rowing Team trains and selects their crews in small boats by Dr. Volker NOLTE
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Considering the resources of the Canadian National Rowing Team (total number of rowers and clubs in Canada, available finances etc.) we certainly have for the last decade the most efficient national team in the world. It even succeeded several times to be the very best team in the world, and consistently produced medals at Olympic Games and World Championships.

Obviously, the success is based on outstanding athletes and a great National team system. One important part of this system is the focus on SMALL BOAT training and racing. We believe, and the experience supports this believe strongly, that the majority of our training should be done in small boats, pairs and singles. Although pairs are the preferred training boats for sweep rowers, the single is considered to be the true basic of the small boat program. Since small boat training has such an outstanding position in our National Team Program, it is worth while to study it in some detail.

WHAT DOES SMALL BOAT TRAINING OFFER?
The most persuasive answer to this question is: It is the ONLY way to make the Canadian National Team! The whole selection procedure is based on small boats. The vast majority of the training in the National Team training centres and camps is done in small boats and the selection races are held in singles and pairs (Speed Order Regatta or, how it is called in the last few years, Training Centre Trials and seat racing). The outstanding positive experience over the last years shows that this is the best method for training and selection.

It is certainly the FAIREST way to select, because the result of the selection is depending on one's individual performance. You cannot hide in a single or a pair. The results of small boat races give a clear ranking of the athletes, and each athlete has the best chance to show their own capability. This system also offers each athlete more options in selection. In the same race for example, you could try out for the eight, the four and the pair. Therefore, it is imperative to train in small boats, because you should prepare in the boat in which you will be tested.
Small boat training offers also generally the BEST PREPARATION for all kinds of racing. It is PHYSIOLOGICALLY the best training method for the individual athlete. It is known that each person develops the best when training at an individual intensity level. The better rowers can go at a faster speed, so they can improve, while the development athletes can row at their speed without experiencing overloading. This would be impossible for example in an eight, where everyone has to row at the same speed.

Small boat training is also the BEST TECHNIQUE TRAINING. It offers the best way to learn balancing, one of the major challenges in rowing technique. Furthermore, singles and pairs provide the highest level of technical difficulty and react most sensible to the forces applied and the movements of the rowers. Any mistake done becomes immediately visible, can be identified and points to the rower who is the cause of it. Research also shows that small boats teach technique the best, because of the direct feedback for the rowers. Sometimes, it does not even require the input of a coach that an athlete knows what has to be corrected. Small boat training improves the sensitivity of the rowers and often, a proper technique can be found simply through trial and error. A pair also shows very clearly the compatibility of two rowers. This knowledge is important for building larger crews.

In addition, small boat training provides many PSYCHOLOGICAL ADVANTAGES. Rowers learn to be only dependent on their own performance. Consequently, they learn confidence in their own abilities. The individual performance is for every single stroke on the line. You simply cannot hide, but you learn to perform. It is much tougher to train and perform in a small boat, where your own performance has such a large influence and no coxswain is there to keep the spirit up. Training in small boats is also much more competitive. Instead of going out on the water in an eight as a singular boat, you could have four pairs competing with each other. The variation of training sessions improves too, because there are more training exercises or ways to organize workouts through the higher number of boats.

Finally, small boat rowing teaches WATERMANSHIP. The rowers learn much more about the element on which they row, and the environment they train. There is no coxswain who looks after the steering. Therefore, the rowers themselves have to take care for their course and the direction they choose. They feel the water, the wind, the waves and the temperatures more directly, and learn to act much more cautiously. With the experience of small boat rowing, the rowers develop more sensitivity how and where they move on the water. As a simple example, it may not be very dangerous to leave the gate of the oarlock undone in an eight, but in a pair it may be life threatening.
But there are also reasons that go beyond racing. Rowers who were taught to row in small boats will most likely enjoy rowing longer in their life than others. They are capable of rowing all boat classes, in different seats, and will not always be depending on a crew. Especially later on in life when it becomes increasingly difficult to get compatible crews together for training and recreation, a rower who is able to scull will find more often the opportunity to get on the water. Small boat rowers will have more chances to continue life long rowing. They may even choose to purchase their own single to become totally independent from others.

AND THERE ARE NO DOWNSIDES OF SMALL BOAT ROWING?
Sure there are! This is why we still have to work on getting even more athletes and clubs hooked on to the small boat philosophy. It is obviously easier to control one eight instead of four pairs, especially since there is a coxswain involved, so to speak in an assistant coach position. In some clubs, there may be even some safety concerns, particularly in cold weather conditions. And finally, you need the boats for this kind of training. If you look into a 'normal' Canadian rowing club, the emphasis lies on the eights. That is the tradition. Therefore, special efforts have to be made to put more small boats in our boathouses. After the small boats are purchased, you will find that you get a lot of good use for them. Rowers will enjoy training in them, and the benefits will be obvious to everybody. Everybody will learn very quickly to handle these boats and safety will be learned from a new angle. Therefore, the disadvantages will actually turn into positive experiences over time.

DREAMSMartin Luther King once said "I have a dream..." when he had a vision of a positive change in society. Why should not we have a dream, too, that with a little bit of understanding what is good for our athletes, and how we should develop our rowing program, small boat training will be used more widely. The advantages of small boat training are so overwhelming and clear that everybody should be excited to get into this kind of training. It is proven so often all over the world, but especially within our highly successful Canadian Team that there should not be any doubt that this is the way to go. The new generation of Canadian rowers will agree and be thankful.

Quote: Dr. Volker Nolte (now 45)Why do I love rowing?I was fascinated by the elegance and the technique involved when I discovered the sport of rowing. This was when I was 13 years old. I still love the sport. I love to go out in my single or with my friends in an eight. I love the feeling of working with my whole body. I love the sense of speed in the water, the noises in the boat, and striving for the perfect stroke. And I love the challenge to teach young athletes these experiences...

The Basis For Training

The Basis For Training –
From the introductory chapter to Periodization: Theory & Methodology of Training
By Tudor Bompa. Published by Human Kinetics 1999.
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Most scientific knowledge, whether from experience or research aims to understand and improve the effects of exercise on the body. Exercise is now the focus of sports science. Research from several sciences enriches the theory and methodology of training, which has become a science of its own. The athlete is the subject of the science of training. The athlete presents a vast source of information for the coach and sport scientist.

During training, the athlete reacts to various stimuli, some of which may be predicted more certainly than others. Physiology, biochemical, psychological, social and methodological information is collected from the training process. All this diverse information comes from the athlete and is produced by the training process. The coach who builds the training process, may not always be in a position to evaluate it. However he must evaluate all the feedback from the training process to understand the athletes reactivity to the quality of training and properly plan future programs. In light of this, it becomes clear that coaches require scientific assistance to ensure that they base their programs on objective evaluations.

Theory and methodology of training is a vast area. Closely observing the information available from each science will make coaches more proficient in their training endeavors. The principles of training are the foundation of this complex process. Knowing the training factors will clarify the role each factor plays in training, according to the characteristic of the sport or event

Hip Extensions & Healthy Hamstrings

Hip Extensions & Healthy Hamstrings

From Functional Training for Sports, M. Boyle, Human Kinetics, 2004. pp 73-84

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The muscles that extend the hip, primarily the gluteus maximus and hamstring group, are often neglected, even in many functional training programs. Programs frequently place excessive emphasis on the knee extensors and neglect the hip extensors. Even more disturbing, the muscles that extend the hip, especially the hamstrings, are often mistakenly trained as knee flexors. In non functional strength programs, many muscle groups are still trained according to outdated understandings of their functions.

Although some anatomy texts describe the hamstring group as knee flexors, science now tells us that the hamstrings are powerful hip extensors and stabilizers of the knee. Hamstrings are only knee flexors in nonfunctional settings. In running jumping or skating, the function of the hamstrings and glutes is not to flex the knee but to extend the hip. As a result, lying or standing leg curls are generally a waste of time for athletes. Leg curl exercises the muscles in a pattern that is never used in sport. Training the muscles in non functional patterns may explain the frequent recurrence of hamstring strain in athletes who rehabilitate with exercises such as leg curls or isokinetics.

Hip Extension Exercises
There are two distinct types of hip extension movements; straight leg hip extensions and bent leg hip extensions. It is critical to use exercises from both categories to properly train the posterior chain muscles (glutes and hamstrings)…

…It is important to note that knee flexion exercises such as squats and variations affect the glutes and hamstrings only as they relate to knee extensions and hip extensions in achieving a neutral standing position. To more fully involve the glutes and the hamstrings the movements must be centered on the hip and not the knee…

Level 1 Exercises
Hyperextensions
The hyperextension is possibly the worst named exercise in the functional training toolbox. Hyperextensions may be referred to as back extensions or back raises, but whatever the name, should be included in every beginning strength program. (This exercise is also called Glut-Ham Raises which more accurately describes the exercise – Ed). The hyperextension is a great basic exercise that teaches the athlete to use the glutes and hamstrings as hip extensors. Despite the name the emphasis should not be on hyperextending the lumber spine but rather on using the glutes and hamstrings as hip extensors. The exercise has three major benefits.

It strengthens the posterior aspect of the trunk (spinal erectors); it works the low back extensors in primarily an isometric, rather than concentric or eccentric, fashion. The spinal erectors (low back muscles) are critical for maintaining proper position in all standing exercises.
It strengthens the glutes and hamstrings as hip extensors. Many people view the hyperextension as a lower back exercise but it is actually an excellent exercise for the upper hamstrings and glutes.
It promotes flexibility in the low back and hamstrings. The actions of lowering and raising the weight of the torso stretch the hamstring group.

Level 2 Exercises
Modified Straight Leg Deadlift
The modified Straight Leg Deadlift (SLDL) ranks with the squat among frequently maligned, misunderstood and poorly executed lifts. The squat and deadlift and their variations are often called unsafe and dangerous. In truth, these lifts are extremely safe and beneficial when performed correctly with an appropriate load. However the squat and the SLDL can be dangerous when performed improperly or with too heavy a weight. The modified SLDL is performed with the legs slightly bent and the back arched. The SLDL, like the hyperextension is an isometric exercise for the spinal erectors (lower back muscles) and a concentric exercise for the hamstrings and glutes. It works the lower back musculature similarly to the squat.

Please not that this is an extremely difficult lift to teach and should be learned with a dowel or weight bar prior to loading.
Technique Points
For dumbbell SLDLs, the dumbbells are held with the palms in towards the thighs (neutral grip), and the hands should move down the outside of the thigh to the shin.
For a straight bar use a clean grip. Arms are straight. Wrists are curled under to encourage elbow extension.
Feet should be approximately hip-width apart. Knees are slightly bent.
Keep the back arched, the shoulder blades retracted and the chest up.
While maintaining your back position, slide the bar down your thighs until you reach the end of your hamstring range of motion.

The keys to the SLDL are bending from the hip and pushing the butt back while maintaining and arched back. Concentrate on pushing the hips and butt back, not on leaning forward. Athletes should start with the weight on the balls of the feet and, as they descend, shift their weight to the heels by pushing the butt back. Maintaining back position is important. Athletes must maintain at least a flat back. If they begin to flex the spine, they have reached the end of the active range of motion of the hamstrings. Remember that this is an isometric exercise for the spinal erectors and a concentric exercise for the glutes and hamstrings. Movement should come from the hip, not from the lumbar spine.

Perform for multiple sets of 5-12 depending on the level of training. Generally no fewer than 5 reps should be done, as a precaution against back injury (due to high loads)

Level 3 Exercises
Two-Leg Stability Ball Hip Extension

A 65cm stability ball is used. The stability ball hip extension uses the hamstrings and glutes as hip extensors. It is extremely important that the movement comes from the hip and not from the lumbar spine.

Technique Points
Place the soles of the feet on the stability ball with hips and knees flexed to 90 degrees.
Place the arms at the sides.
Press the feet down onto the ball with the glutes and hamstrings
Raise the hips up until there is a straight line from the knees to the shoulders.
Extend the hips, not the lumbar spine. Attempt to draw in the abdominals to stabilize the back.
Think hip extension, not lumbar extension.

Body Position and Technique in Early Recovery

Body Position and Technique in Early Recovery

From Rowing & Regatta Magazine, Feb 2006, pp 28-29

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Position and Technique in Early Recovery
Last issue, we identified that rowers have a pelvis that tilts, a spine that bends, and muscles that act to stabilize and move joints. We can now look at the early part of the recovery; what muscles should be activated, and why flexibility and the core muscles important in allowing the correct body position to be attained and sustained?

What muscles should be activated in early recovery?
At the finish of the stroke you should have your legs firmly pressed against the foot stretcher. You should fee that your gluteal (bottom) and quadriceps (thigh) muscles are activated throughout the finish of the stroke.

From backstops, as your hands lead away, you should draw down on your lower abdominal muscles rather than pulling yourself over using your hips. The momentum of your moving hands, as well as the action of the lower abdominals and activation of the gluteals and quadriceps will allow you to tilt your pelvis forward (pivot from the hips)

If you have co-coordinated the recovery sequence correctly, you will feel your bodyweight on your seat in the front of the bones in your bottom (your ischial tuberosities). By drawing in your lower abdominals as you approach frontstops, you will maintain a strong trunk (catch) position.

How does flexibility affect technique in early recovery?
Rocking the pelvis over to a comfortable and strong position off back stops and achieving all body-swing by half slide is emphasized as part of British Rowing Technique.

Good flexibility is essential to do this; it allows you to tilt your pelvis forward, whilst keeping your back straight and in line with your pelvis. On the other hand, poor flexibility can prevent you from attaining this body position.

Poor flexibility will limit technique!
If you have poor flexibility in your hamstrings (often as a consequence of poor core stability, strength or endurance) your short muscles will restrict the forward tilt of your pelvis with your legs straight. Your pelvis and lumber spine will not therefore be aligned.

TOP TIPS
What to do in practice…

1. Test your flexibility
One way to test your flexibility is to sit on a good finish posture on a rowing machine and to see how far you can pivot forward from the hips, whilst tilting your pelvis forward and keeping your back straight and aligned. If you have poor flexibility, you may not be able to pivot your body forwards of vertical.

Another way to test your hamstring flexibility is to sit on a table or bench, with your lower legs hanging over the edge. Straighten one leg out. How high can you lift the leg without your pelvis rotating backwards?

2. Make stretching a habit
Warm up properly. Static stretches to develop flexibility should be held for around 30 seconds. Getting another rower to help you stretch can help to improve your flexibility.

3. Ensure good posture and core stability on a daily basis
Practice good posture in your everyday activities. Coach yourself or others to attain and sustain good posture when rowing. Think about how you can develop core stability and integrate it into your training.

How To Run Seat Races

How To Run Seat Races
By Ted Nash from the 2000-2001 American Rower's Almanac:
Found at Rec.Sport.Rowing Newsgroup
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Pre-Race Planning
The coach, coxswains and rowers should meet beforehand to discuss the specific logistical details including length of warm-up, where the boats and launches will meet on the water, and when seat racing will commence.

The coach should make a chart for the meeting showing the directions the races will be run, the lanes for each shell, the warm-up and rest times, and other matters that may influence readiness. Planned switches should not be shown on the chart.

In the planning of these races, allow some time for switched athletes in the boat to become used to a different seat, and allow them to change their foot stretchers as they desire. If taping the lock is allowed, give the athlete a chance to readjust to the pitch. These changes can be done very quickly.

The coach must not reveal to anyone how many races are planned as weather, accidents, close races and a myriad other factors can influence how many matches are needed to make seating decisions. Tie races must be rerun with the rowers in the same seats.

Coach/Coxswain Preparedness for the Seat racing
Coxswains should carry a bag containing an adjustable wrench, 10mm wrench, black electrical tape for the boat, and/or pitching and a small roll of white athletic tape for hand, calf or heel blisters. Coxswains should be provided with weights so that all coxswains are the same weight.
Coaches should carry water in the launch boat, and offer it to all rowers at the same time. Bathroom stops should only be allowed at pre-arranged times, preferably when the seat racing is completed.

Coaches should take a standard sized seat, spare lock, spare set of 12-13 size shoes, tools, a skeg for 8+ or 4+, depending on race boats, and a tool box with extra pins.

Seat Racing Protocol
No athlete who has recently received a long rest period that others have not had should be allowed to seat-race in that session.
Seat Racing distances should not exceed five minutes which is considered a long enough period to determine strength, rhythm, blend and endurance.
Speed coaches/stroke coaches should be either used by all boats, or by none. Coxswains should be allowed to use cox-box set-ups as they do in regattas.
Accidentally broken equipment should nullify that race only. After replacing broken parts, racing should re-commence.
Coaches should not reveal to the rowers how many races are planned.
A "fair witness" should be riding in the launch to record exact distances of each race in the log book (i.e.- start-variances and margins).
Starts are three to build with margins on fourth catch are noted. Viable stroke rates are 31 to 32.5. Crews are given one free warning for false starts. Subsequent violations result in a one seat penalty. (Later in the season rates of 33-34 are more useful.)
After each piece, crews should paddle one full minute before stopping. Changes are then made. Row about one minute after changing. Major adjustments are made on the dock. Minor items can be changed on the water or by launch assistance. Paddle another four minutes after making the adjustments.
Some coaches want coxswains not to talk during the seat race. That is a choice to make beforehand. Youthful oarsmen generally prefer coxswains who can inspire and fire up. (Keep in mind a special seat race is always going on between coxswains.) There are many views on this point, but I prefer real race conditions which include a high level of enthusiasm and noise - traits found in all good regatta races.
Coaches will do well not to tip their hands by always racing #3s or #2s, or leaving the strokes until last. Athletes will pick-up on such habits and perhaps miss their own peak performance. Such coaching, if repeated, can cause weaker athletes who doubt they can produce all the time to save themselves for later races.
Close races should be re-raced. My definition of a close race is less than 1/2 deck in rough water, or strong headwinds.
Tie-races are always re-run with a "lid". A "lid" means the athletes return to their seats of the prior race and re-race.
Coaches must never "judge" seat racing results. If the athletes expected to win do not, so be it. Coaches who commit to seat racing cannot, under any circumstances, question the results. Second-guessing is a betrayal of the athletes and will destroy their morale as well as their confidence in the coach.
Integrity of seat racing is assumed, observed, expected, recorded and demanded by all - peers, coaches, and the sport. Athletes do not forget the “blade with the fade” (explained below). The coach must also be aware of this should it happen and react properly albeit respectfully.
"Blade with the fade" is referring to an athlete who, once realizes he or she is not being seat raced, will ease off in power. This issue must be stated openly to the athletes at least once each year so that every athlete is clear on the importance and integrity of the seat racing.
Athletes may seek redress if done under coach-control and in a timely manner. (I encourage challenge races.)

Post Seat Racing
After the races are over the "fair witness" (launch observer) should report findings to the coaches. Then coaches, coxswains, and perhaps the captain or respected veteran athletes will help record the results. All questions should calmly be answered and explained and verdicts validated.

After each session coxswains must meet with the coach at the dock to discuss margins and fairness. If a question cannot be solved, the strokes and certain other athletes should be called upon for their views as to fairness.

Seat racing results should be posted in specific team room only by name and margin. Do not post in a general area, as the results are privy only to those who participated.

Checklist for Coaches
A week prior to the first seat race, assign a coxswain to assist your boatman or rigging coach in checking out the seat-race shells. Here are the key things to pass or fail:
Check oar pitch. Because all oars change their pitch over time, a negative 1° oar or scull that replaces a +1° blade can upset a boat if not corrected. The best idea is to measure all oars and use only 0° degree blades. The next best option is to put three wraps of PVC tape tightly around the top of the face of the lock to shallow it, or on the bottom to deepen it.
Seats have no groves or burned out bearings to destroy the rhythm or flow.
All skegs are straight, not just close to okay.
No bent riggers. Pins are at zero degrees.
No cracked back braces or goose necks.
All blades at zero degrees.
All inboards pre-set and tight.
Steering must be attached in the same fashion (reflex direction) from boat to boat.
Yoke turns the rudder directly and does not have slippage.
All coxbox types and speakers work clearly and are not muffled.
All pins are tight to the main braces.

Many excellent coaches over time have created oarsmen swapping plans for their seat races. Call a few of them and ask for tips of their own.

Giving Your Warm Up A Needed Tune Up

Giving Your Warm Up A Needed Tune Up
By Ed McNeely
From Rowing News, July 2003
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Have you ever notices that part way through a workout your energy levels seem to pick up or that during a head race you catch your second wind about halfway through? If so you may not be warming up sufficiently. Pre-training and pre-competition warm ups are now the norm rather than the exception in most sports. Most coaches and athletes approach the warm up as means of preventing injury. However, there is little to no research that indicates that warm-up plays a major role in injury prevention. The warm up does however, have the ability to improve or hinder performance depending on how it is done. A good warm up will normally take 30-40minutes, including the on water and off water portions.

A Warm up has three purposes. First it improves blood flow to the heart muscle and helps prevent abnormal cardiac rhythms and heart attack. While this may not be a major concern for younger athletes, master athletes, people in learn to row or corporate challenge program, which involve less active, older individuals can benefit. Second, as the name implies, a warm up increases muscle temperature. Increased muscle temperature improves oxygen uptake, decreases lactic acid production, increases speed of muscle contraction, and increases the nervous system activity. It is through these changes that performance is improved. Third, a warm up provides the ideal time for pre-competition psychological preparation. Race plan cab be rehearsed and technical points can be mentally reviewed. A well designed warm up has the following components.

Stretching
Often warm up stretches are confused with stretching to increase flexibility. The stretching during a warm up is designed to help you reach your existing level of flexibility. The stretching also activates the stretch receptors in the joints and muscles. This may help you row technically better. Stretching during warm ups will normally involve dynamic stretches, meaning that rather than holding a stretch for a period of time you move through your full range of motion and immediately back out. An example would be doing several full squats to stretch out the quads prior to getting into the boats.

Light Row
This, the first of two light rows, is designed to increase body temperature and provide the performance benefits listed above. This is a good time to mentally rehearse the race and think about the strategy you will use for a variety of scenarios. This portion of the warm up should last for 15 to 20 minutes. If it isn’t possible to be on the water this long prior to a race, an erg or run can be used to raise temperature instead. Keeping the workout intensity low during this phase is very important. You don’t want to create fatigue during the warm up so keep your pace about 15 seconds per 500m below your race pace for 1000 and 2000m races and 12seconds per 500m below had race pace.

Hard Strokes
Doing hard strokes or short sprints helps to increase muscle temperature, improve lactic acid removal and give the crew the feeling of speed and power going into the start. The sprint period or hard strokes should not be done for more than 15 seconds at a time with at least 45seconds between sprints. Longer periods may result in lactic acid accumulation that could slow race performance. The total time spent doing hard strokes should be about 5 minutes.

Light Row
Following the hard strokes, 5 to 10 minutes of light paddling will help remove any lactic acid that has built-up and prevent fatigue from setting in early in the race. This is the part of the warm up program most easily forgotten but may be the most important for race performance. Use similar splits to those used in the first light session row. Try to time this portion of the warm up so that you finish near the start line just before the start of your race. You don’t want to sit for more than about 10minutes between the end of your workout and the start of your race.

Individual differences exist between athletes as to how long they need to warm up but as a general rule you are better to err on the long side and not cut the warm up short. Environmental conditions like temperature and humidity also play a role in warm up duration. On a cool fall or spring day warm up may have to be substantially longer than on a hot humid summer day. Combine the recommendations made here with your own judgment to make sure that you get the most out of your pre race preparation.

The Coach as a Leader - Part 1

The Coach as a Leader - Part 1: How to take your crew to the top of the mountain
By Mike Spracklen.
From American Rowing May/June 1996
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We meet three kinds of people in life: those who make things happen; those who watch things happen, and those who don’t know anything is happening. Likewise throughout our lives we encounter three types of manufacturers: those who make good; those who make trouble, and those who make excuses.

Behaviour patterns can usually be categorised in a triangle of three extremes, as illustrated above, and throughout this article. Recognising this can help leaders identify people’s motivations and understand their points of view. People don’t always mean what they say or say what they mean. Assessing people’s true motivations will help you draw accurate conclusions, make good decisions and be an effective leader.

The Key to Success
‘Psychology is a very important part of preparing athletes for competition’

As sports become more and more competitive, better technique, more training and improved equipment contributes to higher levels of performance. Losing may result from not having the right boat, the right technique, or the right training program. We can control those things and reduce the possibility of error. We have less control of the athlete’s psyche, which plays a decisive role in determining success or failure. Psychology is a very important part of preparing athletes for competition.

The improved performance of the men’s eight the past two years (USA 94/95) was not due to better technique or equipment, an improved training program or superior athletes. It was because of the athlete’s confidence in themselves, developed through their training program. Having faith in a program is vital for success, but ultimately athletes must enter their race with confidence that will withstand the highest pressures. It takes years to develop this type of confidence, and there is fine line between over confidence and insufficient confidence.

Confidence is the foundation of keeping athletes focused. It’s the ability to perform well when it matters most. It’s the ability to overcome self-imposed physical or technical limitations. How does the coach teach high performance athletes to become more confident?

Instilling Confidence
‘Confidence grows from the belief coaches and athletes have in each other’

Confidence grows over a long association between coach and athlete. The best coaches have years of experience and a wealth of knowledge to pass on to their athletes. They have made mistakes and witnessed the mistakes of others. From their experiences they have learned the best way to the mountaintop. Athletes are not explorers. They do not want to waste time looking for alternate routes. They know what their goals are and want the best help to achieve them. They need the security of a knowledgeable coach, someone they can follow with confidence.

Confidence grows from the belief athletes and coaches have in each other. It’s not an instantly acquired relationship, nor is it one sided. It’s the product of mutual respect and a bond between coach and athletes, developed from the beginning of a training program, to the last stroke in a race. Coaches need motivation just as much as the athletes, and although the coach takes the lead, success comes from interaction between the coach and his athletes. Just as the coach will monitor his athletes and assess them daily, so they will assess him.

Athletes will respect a coach who has been successful, but a reputation will survive only the short time it takes them to form their own opinions. They will constantly observe him and score his behaviour. When he shows compassion and understanding he will gain points. The athletes will test his knowledge of the sport and his ability to lead them. The will watch closely how he selects crews. He must always be fair and treat everyone alike. They will judge his integrity. Point by point, each good deed will enhance trust. If the coach disregards the athlete’s questions or shows no interest in their problems, they will feel insecure. When the coach is unkind, unfair, untruthful, uncompassionate or unsympathetic to their needs, he loses points. One bad deed can destroy confidence created by many good deeds.

Motivating Athletes
‘The best form of motivation is encouragement’

To be confident, athletes must be motivated. Bribery, incitement and encouragement are the most common motivational methods. Financial inducement for winning or withdrawal of support for failing, are forms of bribery. Some coaches incite their athletes to hate the opposition. The worst leaders incite athletes against their own team members.

The best form of motivation is encouragement-exploiting the athletes desire to be successful. Athletes want to be good as they can be and are inspired by doing well. Motivated athletes strive for perfection. Good leaders do not expect perfection, but they do require excellence. Excellence is the ability to focus on the things that matter most. It’s the foundation of good coaching. Coaches who have good focus and remain on track are more effective leaders and less vulnerable in times of stress. Remaining in control under pressure is seeing things clearly and making the right decisions. Decisions made with confidence inspire confidence and provide the basis for persevering in the face of adversity.

Good focus is developed through practising skills over and over again. A wise coach prepares himself and the team for the unexpected-and just about anything! He never procrastinates. He has a sense of urgency about getting things done. There are many competent people who have intentions of doing things ‘as soon as possible’ but seldom get around to it. Their accomplishments seldom match those of less talented people who get things done at the right time.

Accepting Responsibility
‘Athletes respect coaches who have the integrity to admit their mistakes’

Accountability is another quality of successful coaches. It’s directing energy toward clear goals and assessing progress towards achieving them. It’s accepting a share of the responsibility when goals are not achieved. Good coaches do not look for excuses or scapegoats when they fail. They look to themselves, learn from their mistakes and take steps to make things better for the future.

Athletes respect coaches who have the integrity to admit their mistakes. Of course, the athletes will lose faith if the coach makes to many mistakes or repeats them, but if he denies them, he destroys the athletes trust. Coaches are not infallible. Making an occasional mistake reinforces the fact that they are only human. When the coach accepts his share of the blame when things go wrong, he strengthens the athlete/coach bond.

Teaching Technique
‘A knowledgeable coach can help the athletes gain confidence in themselves while gaining points for himself’

The ability to teach good rowing technique is also an asset. Nothing is more thrilling than rowing in a fast boat, but rowing skills are not easily mastered, and reproduction of that magical feeling is elusive. A knowledgeable coach can help the athletes gain confidence in themselves while gaining points for himself. Rowers generally pass through three psychological stages:

They know nothing
They think they know everything
They know they don’t know it all

It is pleasant coaching people in stage 1. They are eager to learn, and it’s easier to teach good technical movements. A wise coach knows what 'grooves in' in the first few weeks, may take years to change afterwards and he recognises the importance of teaching good technique. After a few years in the sport and a few races won, athletes reach stage 2, when they think they know it all. Coaches also pass through this stage. When they are in this state of non-acceptance, it’s difficult for them to learn. A clenched fist cannot accept a gift, and a clenched psyche cannot receive a lesson.

Leaders have to be forever testing new opinions and strengthen their resolve. The coach who says, ‘I've heard it all before’ or the athlete who says, ‘I've gained nothing from this experience’ is setting his own limitations. There is always something to learn, no matter how many times you have had the same experience. Coaches who know only one path are vulnerable when they find themselves in strange territory. The worst situation is the athlete who challenges the coach. He is a real threat to the team’s confidence. When criticism becomes negative, it should not be allowed to manifest.

In stage 3, athletes are mature. They are receptive to instruction, but experience has warned them not every path leads to the mountain top. In a world of petulance and differing opinions, athletes seeking guidance find much to confuse them. Races are won in a variety of ways, and athletes are entitled to ask questions without fear of retribution.

Communicating Effectively
‘Younger coaches are inclined to give to much information at once’

Ninety percent of athletic success can be credited to the athlete, and only 10% to the coach. In order for the coach to maximise his influence, he must possess three qualities:

Experience
Knowledge
Communication skills

Experience and knowledge are acquired with time, while communication is as an art. Communication includes motivational as well as technical input. People respond to instruction differently, and the coach must forever search for the right words. His methods vary from friendly persuasion to verbal force. Harsh words will work with some athletes, but use them on the wrong person, and they will turn on you. Use them too often and they will lose their affect. Coaches have different ways of communicating:

Some say only what is necessary
Some never stop talking
Some have little to say

Younger coaches are inclined to give to much information at once. Eager to impress, they switch from one technical emphasis to another. The athletes get to familiar with the sound of the coach’s voice, and after a while, what is said goes over the tops of their heads. Athletes can respond better if fewer technical points are given.

At the other end of the scale is the crew that rows for hours with barely a word from the coaching launch. When the voice finally breaks the silence, it can have a positive affect on the crew, but the coach relies on his rower’s physical condition to win rather than their technique. If the athletes receive sparse technical instruction, they may believe technique is of little value or think they are rowing technically well enough.

The experienced coach is always trying to improve his communication skills by searching for the right words. He expects to see a change in the athlete, but if there is no difference, he will blame himself and look for a different approach.

Beginners need explicit instruction, but experienced rowers respond better to being coached as a crew. Avoid criticising the same rower continually. He will lose confidence, and other team members will see him as a weak link. Consider how hard it is to change yourself and you’ll understand what chance you have of changing others. Once habits are grooved in, they’re hard to break and sometimes better left alone. You may not like a habit, but time spent trying to change one person may be at the expense of something that would produce a better result for the crew. This is not to say you shouldn’t coach athletes individually but that you should decide the important factors and put them ahead of less important ones.

Gaining by Explaining
‘People who understand what they’re doing are less likely to get it wrong’

Your instructions are more likely to succeed if you take the trouble to explain ‘why’. Giving a good reason prevents athletes from thinking you’re ‘bossy’ and from feeling they’re being ordered around. Explanation also reduces the chance of error. People who understand what they’re doing are less likely to get it wrong. Likewise it ensures that you understand exactly what you want the athletes to do. Explaining the reason for your request also enables the athletes to make suggestions that can be helpful. People are not robots. The more you treat them like human beings, the better they will respond to you.

Explain precisely what you want, show good and bad movements to everyone equally, encourage athletes to watch video alone and work things out for themselves- it’s the most effective way of learning. Learn about your athletes as individuals and vary your approach until you find what works for them.

Managing the Stress of Physical Training
‘Physical duress will cause changes in temperament and personality’

While the coach can easily gain points with good technical instruction, he can readily lose points through the pressure of physical training. Physical duress will cause changes in temperament and personality. Some athletes will gain strength from the challenge, some will retreat, and others will become aggressive. The coach must remain calm in these challenging situations and handle every incident rationally despite what he is feeling. The coach is there to support the athletes, propping them up when they need it most. Outbursts caused by physical stress normally last only a short period. Retaliation won’t help the crew win.

When an athlete criticises, analyse the reason for the complaint rather that accepting it at face value. Complaints usually come from those who are not doing well. They tend to complain about things that affect themselves personally rather than things that affect others. Complaints arise when athletes are:

Tired from training
Not performing up to standard
Jealous of, or feel threatened by another athlete

When an athlete looks for somewhere to lay blame for not performing up to the standard, the coach is first in the line of fire. The athlete may complain that he is ‘overtrained’, or he may accuse the coach of not helping him as much as he is of helping those who are performing better than he is. The coach must appreciate what is happening and show understanding. It will not help if you tell an athlete he has a poor attitude. He will merely reply, ‘You are a rotten coach’ and that s as far as it gets. You will both end up harbouring hostility and animosity.

The most difficult case is an athlete who has good physique, trains hard and is technically good but performs below the standard of others. The coach must not avoid the issue by classifying him as one who will not make it, but look for solutions that will help him.

Emotions have to be controlled but not stifled. Athletes should be free to let off steam once in a while. It will help athletes if they are advised of the character changes that occur during intense training. This will help them understand each other and control their emotions. It has quite a sobering effect on a ‘hot-head’ when a team-mate says ‘Coach says that when we train some of us would lose our tempers’ or ‘Coach said that the slowest athletes would be the first to complain’. It also helps to remind them sometimes of the old adage, ‘When the going gets tough, the tough gets going’

Maintaining Motivation
‘Goal setting is fundamental to motivation’

The coach must help athletes through times of intense training by good program structure and by setting goals. Athletes want to know how they’re doing, and setting regular tests helps keep motivational levels high. Goal setting is fundamental to motivation. Most of us aspire to achieve certain
things in life but do not make goals realistic and achievable; they become little more than dreams.

Regular goal setting helps maintain day-to-day momentum and motivation toward long term goals. Effective goal setting encourages persistence. Regular tests are an important part of the preparation process. Not only are athletes motivated by their progress, but they also learn how to prepare themselves physically and mentally for competition.

Take the trouble to explain the overall program, the purpose of each type of workout and the physical effects of training. Every session has a purpose, a clearly defined focus. There is always something to gain, even though sometimes the training is not as good as we would like it. Not every outing will be brilliant, but when a crew is having a bad row, encourage them to focus on physical training. When they are unable to work because of sickness or injury, encourage them to focus on technique.

When the program intensity increases, break each session into small segments and set different goals for each segment. This will help the athlete’s concentrate when they get tired or when motivation gets low. Set daily targets, weekly tests and monthly performance reviews. This ensures that your athletes can take a step back and see the progress they’re making towards their goals. These improvements, no matter how small they may seem, are contributing significantly towards the overall performance. The goals can be technical or physical, as small as 20 strokes, or as large as an important regatta. Every session will contribute towards achieving the athlete’s biggest goal.

If you don’t reach your goals, you haven’t failed. Success comes from learning from your experience and striving to do better next time.

Understanding Athletes
‘The most successful coaches can adapt their motivational methods to meet their needs’

Top athletes with a very clear view of their capabilities have confidence. Extremes of the triangle are:

Confident
Unassuming
Insatiably opinionated

Some athletes are modestly unaware of their own capabilities. They may not have the best coach, or be part of a good program. They have limited opportunity to develop. Confidence will grow in other athletes from rehearsal of every possible eventuality, having faith in what they’re doing and practising it over and over again. The opinionated athlete is the toughest to handle. Nothing quite hurts like the truth, and this type is the first to lay blame elsewhere when things don’t go his way.

Athletes are also different in the way they approach their training:

Some you have to push
Some push themselves
Some you have to restrain

The first is the athlete who does as little as necessary. The second type works conscientiously and will complete the program as written. The third type does more than the program. He will row 21 strokes instead of 20, or nine sets when the program requires eight.

Less motivated athletes will avoid the kind of work they do not like. An illness or an injury is a common excuse for missing a workout. A slow runner will have a bad knee when running is on the program, or a rower will have back problems when he wants a few days rest. Some athletes won’t disclose an injury for fear of losing a place in the squad while others will press on regardless of injury or illness, to keep up their training level. Athletes sometimes exaggerate the seriousness of an injury to excuse bad performance. The injury list usually increases just before an ergometer test. Hard training will reveal the weaker characters.

As the coach becomes familiar with his athletes by fitting them into the behavioural triangle, it will help him understand how to influence them and keep them on the straight and narrow path. The most successful coaches can adapt their motivational methods to meet their needs. The best ways to influence athletes is to give them confidence in all they do and look at their weaknesses with compassion, not accusation. Encouragement only works if the athletes have confidence and respect for the leaders direction. Coaches, who lack confidence, control by intimidation and domination.

What Kind of Coach Are You?
‘Confident coaches are experienced, knowledgeable and charismatic’

Athletes quickly recognise insecure coaches and lose confidence in their leadership. Insecure coaches don’t like the challenge of athletes who defy them, and they are quick to lose their tempers. They’re influenced by personalities, and they have their favourites in the team. They are emotionally unstable and will tell lies when in trouble, which leads to more lies and more trouble. Three types of coaches are:

Confident
Megalomaniac
Unaffected

Confident coaches are experienced, knowledgeable and charismatic. Egotistical coaches usually suffer from lack of confidence and become obsessed with the fear of losing
power to the point of bordering on insanity. The fear of losing control influences the way they lead. Some coaches think to be successful you have to enforce strict rules with threats. A wise coach doesn’t use threats unless he is prepared to carry them out. Backing down could lead to anarchy and more rules, ending with the possibility of having to exclude a top athlete from the team.

Athletes should be allowed to decide for themselves which path they will take up the mountain. They may wish to compete in a boat against the coaches advise, but the coach who tries to dissuade an athlete from his aspirations will break the trust between them. Even if the athlete performs as the coach predicts. He does not want to hear ‘I told you so’ from his coach. He will remain insecure with the coach who has only looked out for himself. Sport is about participants, and the coach’s job is to help them, not stand in their way. Even if a coach disagrees with the athlete’s ambition, he must remain firmly by his side and help in every which way he can in whatever direction the athlete pursues. In fact, he helps himself best by helping the athlete, not by trying to dissuade him from his ambition.

Leadership is an art based on philosophy, with clearly defined principles that provide positive direction. It is an on going process of keeping vision and values aligned with a direction accordant with the things that are most important. The coach’s destination is the top of the mountainous medal podium. If the path we choose doesn’t lead us to the peak, every step gets us to the wrong place faster. The integrity, personality and knowledge displayed by the coach will foster the athlete’s trust until they follow the mountain path blindly, confident their coach has chosen the right route.

You don’t have to be superhuman to be a good leader, but you do have to understand other people, how they feel and what influences them.

Primer on Periodization

Primer on Periodization
By Tudor O. Bompa, Ph.D.,
From Olympic Coach Summer 2004
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Tudor Bompa is THE person who stimulated Western interest in Periodization. Tudor Bompa competed as a rower in the 1956 Olympic Games in Melbourne, Australia and won a silver medal at the 1958 European Championships, which were held in Poland.

As a very important training concept, Periodization is not, as many people may believe, a new discovery. As exemplified by Flavius Philostratus (AD 170-245), a Greek philosopher and sporting enthusiast, a simple form of Periodization has been used since the ancient Olympic Games. In his six manuals on training, Phylostratus wrote extensively about the methods used by the Greek Olympians.

The roots of periodization can be found in the term “period” as in a period of time. In fact, the term Periodization has been borrowed from history, where it refers to the specific periods of time of human development. In sports training, this term, periodization, refers to dividing the yearly training plan into smaller and, therefore, easier to manage training phases. Basically, the periodization of an annual plan has three major phases: preparatory or pre-season, competitive or season, and transition or offseason. This is what Philostratus mentioned about the way the ancient Olympians organized their own periodization, except that they used slightly different terms: preparation, Olympic Games, and relaxation. Is this training organization method so drastically different than what the US track and field athletes, the winners of most medals in the first modern Olympic games (Athens, 1896), have used? Not at all! This first group of American Olympians has used exactly the same Periodization plan: preparatory, competitive, culminating with the Olympic Games, and off-season (transition).


WHY IS IT NECESSARY TO USE PERIODIZATION?
The use of periodization is dictated by several training elements, such as:

Physiological adaptation to training. The scope of training, especially during the preparatory phase, is to create a training program that will result in the highest adaptation, or athlete’s best adjustments of the neuromuscular and cardio-respiratory systems to your training program. Higher adaptation, increased athlete’s physical potential, is the determinant factor in reaching peak performance during the competitive phase. The program you organize during the preparatory phase, the development of the motor abilities necessary in your sport (strength, speed and endurance) to the highest level possible, is a fundamental requirement to improvement of the athlete’s working potential, their physical abilities, and as a result, their improvement of performance from year to year.

Peak performance. Normally, a peak performance is planned to be reached during the competitive phase and cannot be maintained forever. This is why during the preparatory phase; the scope of training is to improve the athlete’s working capabilities, to accumulate the highest physical potential possible, to cope with the fatigue of training and competitions, but not necessarily to reach highest performances of the year. This is normally achieved during the competitive phase by progressively planning more specific training programs— specific speed, power, and endurance. However, your athlete’s highest adaptation to training, continuous improvements of physical potential, represent the foundation on which peak performance depends on. Without a continuous increase of your athlete’s physical potential from year to year, you cannot expect to improve performance on yearly basis.

Skill development. The rate of improving and perfecting your athlete’s technical and tactical skills, are directly dependent on how you periodize your training program. During the preparatory phase, where the stress of competitions is almost nonexistent, skill acquisition is maximal. Now is the time to teach your athletes new skills and to perfect the ones acquired in the past year. Your athlete’s skill improvement during the preparatory phase will be most beneficial during the league games and/or official competitions. The longer the preparatory phase, the better your athlete’s chances to improve skills’ effectiveness. In team sports, martial arts / contact sports and racquet sports, any technical improvements will directly assist your athlete’s tactical proficiency. In other words, the better the technique, the easier the athlete will apply the skills into your tactical plan.

Psychological qualities. Athlete’s psychological behavior, his/her degree of motivation and focusing capabilities are directly dependent of their physical potential acquired during the preparatory phase. High level of physical potential usually translates into better abilities to cope with fatigue. The athlete’s psychological well-being is directly dependent on the level of fatigue. When an athlete is physically exhausted it directly affects his/her visualization, concentration capabilities, focusing, and motivation. An exhausted athlete is not a highly motivated athlete. But athlete’s psychological behavior is also negatively affected by the volume (quantity) and intensity used in training (high loads in weight training, the abuse of maximum speed, the daily employment of just high intensity drills in team sports/ racquet sports/martial arts, etc.). The higher the intensity of training the higher the stress, and the more it taxes the central nervous system (CNS). The consequence of constant high intensity training is a high psychological fatigue. The best cure for a negative psychological fatigue that affects the level of psychological qualities and reactions is a well-planned periodized training. Organize longer preparatory phases, if you can, with the lowest psychological stress. Accumulate best physical adaptation to training so that your athletes are well equipped to cope with fatigue, and as such, decrease the level of psychological fatigue.

Climatic conditions. The duration of the seasons in a given geographical region, also dictates the way you’ll organize your periodization plans. Often the duration of a given training phase, such as the duration of outdoors season, clearly dictates how long the league games for outdoors team sports can be. Climatic conditions, therefore, directly dictates the periodization of all the outdoors sporting activities, seasonal sports such as skiing, rowing, kayaking/canoeing, running, cycling of any type, triathlon, sailing, golfing, etc.

VARIATIONS OF PERIODIZATION/ ANNUAL PLANS
The time since the ancient Olympic Games has long passed, and along with many other improvements in the human society, periodization of training has evolved as well. In addition to the basic periodization plan of three main phases (see figure 1), typical plan for most team sports, there are other variations of periodizations as well. The needs of certain sports had made us to depart from the ancient periodization plan with one peak only, known as mono-cycle in the technical nomenclature, or peaking only for one major competition (i.e. National Championships). Consequently, different sports with specific domestic and international calendar of competitions employ other types of periodization plans. As such, track and field has two major competitions per year: indoors and outdoors competitions, or short and long course championships in swimming.

This type of plan is called a bi-cycle, or double peaking. Other sports, such as wrestling, boxing, or martial arts, use either triple peaking, also called tri-cycle, or multi-peaking plans, where the athletes have to peak several times per year. As illustrated by Figure 1, each training phase is subdivided into smaller phases, such as macro-cycle (macro = bigger, and cycle = a phase which repeats itself several times throughout the annual plan). A macro-cycle is usually 3–5(6) weeks, or micro-cycles (micro = small). The only smaller training phase than the micro-cycle is the training session, or workout. Therefore, looking from the top of Figure 1 to the bottom, you realize that a periodized annual plan progressively becomes shorter. The shorter the phase, the easier is to manage a training program. However, an overall guideline of training is necessary: a periodized annual plan.

As already mentioned in several sports, coaches have to use a bi-cycle (double periodization), a triple-cycle, and very few sports employ a multi-peaking plan. Figure 2 shows a bi-cycle annual plan with its training phases, and the specific objectives for each training phase. Not mentioned at all are the macro-, and micro-cycles, now relatively clear in readers’ mind that they subdivide each training phase into smaller units of training. Please also observe that each preparatory phase has two training objectives:

In the first one third of the phase, the scope of the plan is to train the athletes with non-specific, but also with some specific type of training.

The rest of the preparatory phase is dedicated to sport-specific types of training, from specific flexibility to specific speed, strength and endurance.

SOME CHALLENGES OF PERIODIZATION
Number of Peaks per Season
The more peaks you are planning for a year or a competitive phase, as often is the case with individual sports/ martial arts/contact sports/racquet sports, the more difficult is to peak for each important competition. Usually, a competition means a very stressful environment. Therefore, the more competitions and the more you push your athletes to peak for each one of them, the more stress the athletes are exposed to. The higher the stress without rest and regeneration prior to a new competition, the closer your athlete is to a state of staleness, or even overtraining. To avoid such an unpleasant conditions, you have to prioritize competitions, meaning to treat some of them as very important and others the second, or even third priority competitions. Obviously, the intent should be a full peak only for the first priority competition; whish usually should be the championships competition of that cycle.

Avoid Overtraining
As you plan for competitions, you should you plan to avoid their strain, staleness, and the undesirable state of overtraining. There are certain methods to accomplish that, such as:
1. Never plan a challenging workout immediately following a stressful competition! Give your athletes time to remove the fatigue, relax mentally, rest and recover before your athletes will train hard again.
2. Throughout a week of training constantly alternate high with medium and low intensity workouts. This is a build-in strategy to avoid critical levels of fatigue.
3. After each competitive phase, make sure the athletes have at least two weeks of transition, so that they can replenish the energy stores, remove fatigue, relax mentally, and regenerate from exhaustion.
4. Use the step loading method (Figure 4), as the best progression training adaptation: one week of low intensity, followed by a medium, and then by a high intensity week. Every time you’ll start again with low intensity week, this will be an opportunity for your athletes to replenish energy stores, recover and regenerate physically and mentally before they’ll be exposed to more difficult weeks.

Short-Duration Preparatory Phases
Influenced by professional sports, some coaches attempt to imitate their heavy competitive schedule, and as such accept the notion; the more games/competitions, the better my athletes will improve. In reality the opposite is true: the more you compete the less time you have for training. As demonstrated by sports science, well designed training programs and not high number of competitions led to higher adaptation, and as a result, to higher performance improvement. To play/compete more means in reality to have a longer competitive phase, a situation which is possible only by reducing the duration of the preparatory phase, with all its negative repercussions: less time to acquire/perfect skills, reduced time to improve general conditioning (such as during the general preparatory phase), and shorter time to work on improving the sport specific speed, power and endurance. Reduced time to train but increased time to compete means in reality to train and over train just the same exercises, same specific parts of the body, joints and muscles, and as a result, increase the incidents of injuries. On a long-term basis, shorter duration preparatory phases will reduce training time, lower the rate of adaptation, and ultimately result in a stagnation of performance improvement.

Sports Nutrition Primer

Sports Nutrition Primer—
By Debra Wein.
From NSCA’s Performance Training Journal, NSCA
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Depending on the duration, intensity, and type of exercise you are performing, there are three stages where nutrition plays a role in performance —before, during, and after activity. One of the primary goals of sport nutrition is to optimize the availability of muscle glycogen, thereby insuring optimal performance.

Pre-Exercise Nutrition
Properly nourishing yourself before exercise should:
-Prevent low blood sugar during exercise.
-Provide fuel by topping off your muscle glycogen stores.
-Settle your stomach, absorb gastric juices, and prevent hunger.
-Instill confidence in your abilities.

Remember, fasting is detrimental to performance, and is strongly discouraged before exercise or performance. The pre-exercise meal should consist primarily of high carbohydrate, low fat foods for easy and fast digestion. Since everyone’s preferences for, and responses to, different foods are unique, it is recommended that you learn through trial and error what does and does not work for you. For example, some people respond negatively to sugar intake within an hour before exercise. The temporary “boost” that some people experience after eating foods with a high sugar (sucrose) concentration such as candy, syrups, or soft drinks actually causes an increase in insulin production which will be followed by a rapid lowering of blood sugar, and can lead to decreased performance. In addition, fructose (the sugar present in fruit juices) ingested before exercise may also lower your blood sugar and cause gastrointestinal distress in some people, but not others.

How much time should you allow before exercise after eating?
-Allow adequate time for digestion and normalization of blood glucose:
-4 hours for a large meal.
-2 – 3 hours for a smaller meal.
-1 hour for a blended meal, a high carbohydrate beverage (10 – 30%), or a small snack.

During Exercise
When an individual has been consuming a diet sufficient in carbohydrates, 60% or greater, there is enough energy present in the muscles to fuel workouts and other activities completed within 60 – 90 minutes. On the other hand, during prolonged, strenuous exercise lasting over 90 minutes, carbohydrate ingestion at
regular intervals during the exercise is beneficial2, 3. For example, consuming 8 ounces (1 cup) of a sports drink containing a 6 – 10 % carbohydrate concentration every 15 – 20 minutes can delay the onset of fatigue. This is equivalent to a rate of 0.8 – 1.0 grams of carbohydrate per minute or approximately 24 – 30 grams every half hour.

Post-Exercise Nutrition
When and what you eat after a work-out can have a serious effect on your recovery. Adequate recovery means that your muscles are rested, re-fueled, and ready to perform again, which is extremely important for people who exercise every day. Inadequate recovery can lead to chronic fatigue and a gradual decline in your performance. Be selective in what you eat after exercise; wise choices will help you recover quickly and enable your muscles to work better the next time around. For the fitness enthusiast whose workouts generally last less than 90 minutes, your main concern is to re-fuel with a well-balanced, high carbohydrate diet. However, if your workouts typically last longer than 90 minutes and are “exhaustive,” the timing of your meals is additionally important. Your body needs about 20 hours to replenish its fuel stores. Furthermore, this will only occur if adequate carbohydrate (approx. 500 – 600 grams depending on your body size) is consumed during this time2, 3. The first 2 – 3 hours after exercise are critical for you—don’t wait to eat.

For optimal glycogen re-synthesis, follow these target intakes during the 20 hours following a workout:
-Immediately after exercise (15 – 30 minutes): 75 – 100 grams carbohydrate.
-Within the next 2 – 3 hours after exercise: 100 grams carbohydrate.
-Every 4 hours thereafter: 100 grams carbohydrate.

For example, since 1 gram carbohydrate
= 4 calories, 75 – 100 grams = 300 – 400 calories. In practical terms, you could take in 75 – 100 grams of carbohydrate by eating:
-A banana and a bagel.
-1⁄2 cup raisins and a slice of bread.
-2 cups of orange juice and a cup of yogurt.

Current research also suggests that protein, when consumed along with the post carbohydrate fuel, can increase the rate of glycogen resynthesis and improve recovery1. A high carbohydrate beverage (10 – 30% carbohydrate concentration) can also be used as an immediate source of carbohydrate replenishment. These beverages can be especially useful after a workout in the heat when you may be more inclined to drink than to eat. However, high carbohydrate beverages are not complete foods; they do not contain all the nutrients your body needs for good health and top performance. If you use these beverages in your training regimen, make sure you follow soon after with a well-balanced, high carbohydrate meal, and plenty of fluids.

References
1. Koopman R, Wagenmakers AJ, Manders RJ, Zorenc AH, Senden JM, Gorselink M, Keizer HA, van Loon LJ. (2004). The combined ingestion of protein and free leucine with carbohydrate increases post exercise muscle protein synthesis in vivo in male subjects, American Journal of Physiololgy – Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nov 23.
2. Position of the ADA, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine. (2000). Nutritionand athletic performance. Journal of the American Dietetics Association, 100:1543 – 1556.
3. Rosenbloom C. (2000). Sports nutrition, A guide for the professional working with active people, Third Edition. Chicago; The American Dietetic Association.

About the Author
Debra Wein, MS, RD, LDN, NSCACPT is on the faculty at The University of Massachusetts Boston and Simmons College. She chairs the Women’s Subcommittee of the Massachusetts’ Governor’s Committee on Physical Fitness and Sports and is the President of The Sensible Nutrition Connection, Inc. (www.sensiblenutrition.com).

Identification and Correction of Errors

Identification and Correction of Errors
By Wolfgang Fritsch,
From Rowing
-
What is the right technique?
-Not all fast crews row the same, but all have the same basics.
-Use the rowers fitness to enhance the speed of the boat (effective driving force)
-Minimise the force and movements that counter the effective driving force

All top teams display the following 5 principles
-Long oar stroke
-First part of the stroke is vitally important, the angle in front of the gate is twice the angle behind. -Catching and lock on occur very quickly.
-All top rowers produce as little vertical movement as possible
-Effort is made to move the body, hands, oars and seat with uniform speeds
-Good team coordination.

Developing Rowing Technique
-The coach must have a clear idea of the principles of the sequence of movements during each stroke
-Developing proficient movements (rowing technique) must be task related not an end in itself.

Tips
-Take into consideration age, levels of knowledge and motivation
-Apart from descriptions and explanations of movements, kinaesthetic perception (feeling movement) should also be taken into consideration
-The coach should always graphically (visually & aurally) illustrate movement sequences to those at practice
-The tasks should take into account age, height, weight, etc. The coach should not demand the impossible
-Coaching as well as correcting errors should initially concentrate on the essentials. Do not get bogged down in petty details

Besides coaching in technique, physical fitness must be developed. Both factors are mutually dependent.

Corrective Measures
-Compare your own understanding of the movement with those of the rower and allow feedback from the athlete on their own movement. Ensure that your understanding of the problem is not the problem!

Bear in mind the physical conditions – wind waves etc.
-Carry out the movements and movements sequences in slow motion, with breaks, and as isolated parts of a whole movements
-Create conditions or give exercises that make errors impossible.
-Exaggerate the corrections to mistakes.
-Encourage general physical development (strengthening) as well as technical training.
-Vary the speed and intensity of the movements so that the learners do not adapt only to basic slow movements
-Vary boat types, situations & partners

Identifying Errors
-When identifying errors the coach should look to see if the error has originated in the current phase of the stroke cycle or a previous phase of the cycle.
-Is the problem caused by problems with rigging

Good Blade Depth at Your Fingertips

Good Blade Depth at Your Fingertips
By Marlene Royle.
From Rowing News, July 2003

Blade depth is one of the aspects of technique that needs careful attention. Rowing too deep causes a myriad of problems such as getting caught at the release or increasing the amount of vertical motion in the stroke. I recently did a group lesson with some intermediate scullers and here is how we worked on blade depth to help move the boat better.

First, to get a sense of where the blade will sit naturally, I had the scullers sit at the release and hold the scull only using their thumb on the end of the handle. By keeping pressure against the oarlock, they had control of the handle but also allowed the blade to sit at its natural depth in the water. They then lightly placed their fingers on the blade without disturbing the height in the water.

Next, we did a drill where we rowed in circles. With one blade feathered flat on the water and the boat balanced, I had them row with one oar. The boat moved in a circle, but the advantage of this drill was they were able to watch what the blade was doing during the stroke. I explained that by accomplishing the right action in the water your inboard handle levels would also be at the right heights. I asked the scullers to keep the top edge of the blade level with the surface of the water; this way had a concrete reference point for where the blade level should be while in the water.

Allowing the blade to sit in the water requires light hands while making sure you don’t overpower the stroke and lift with the upper body during the drive. I like to use two finger rowing as a way to demonstrate how little effort is required to control the oar. I instructed the group to use regular hand placements while on the recovery; place the blades at the catch and once their in the water lift the middle, ring and small fingers off the handle so they are drawing the handles with the thumb and index fingers only. In this drill you can’t actually pull hard so you automatically can feel where the blade wants to sit. Another variation we did with this was to row with only the middle fingers, where after the entry, they used only the middle fingers to draw the handles through the stroke.

The final drill we did during the session was half blade rowing. The goal of this drill was to feel how to control the blade keeping only the lower half of the blade in the water. This requires focusing on the point of contact between the lower edge of the blade and the waters surface. Learning when this happens helps you to understand the sense of the blades size and action. It will also help you learn an important frame of reference for developing good catch timing and for improving your racing starts this season.

Nutrition for Traveling Athletes

Nutrition for Traveling Athletes.
By The Department of Sports Nutrition. Australian Institute of Sport.
From www.ais.org.au/nutrition

Travelling away from home for training and competition is standard practice for most elite and recreational athletes. Unfortunately, the disruptions and distractions of a new environment, changes in schedule and exposure to different foods can significantly affect usual eating habits. Major nutritional challenges faced by athletes while traveling include:
-achieving carbohydrate and protein requirements
-meeting daily vitamin and mineral requirements
-balancing energy intake
-maintaining adequate hydration
-food safety

It is essential that strategies are put in place to minimise the impact of travel on an athlete's food intake. Whether an athlete is travelling overseas or on a long local bus trip, the key to successful eating while on the move is planning and preparation.

Plan Ahead
A general plan consisting of where, when and what the athlete is planning to eat on each day should be constructed around the anticipated daily schedule. It is important to keep foods and meal times as similar as possible to the usual daily routine at home.

Research the Destination
Food patterns at the destination should be investigated as thoroughly as possible before leaving home:
-Are all important foods available?
-Is the accommodation self-catering or will it be necessary to rely on restaurants or takeaways?
-What are the hygiene and food safety risks?

The internet, travel agencies, embassies, competition organisers or other athletes who have travelled to the destination before can be used to gain information.

Choose Your Catering Style
Self Catering
Cooking skills, budget and access to shops will determine the meals that can be served. The availability of food at local shops, the cooking and storage facilities and available utensils need to be investigated before leaving home. Ideally, the menu should be planned in advance. Cookbooks such as the AIS Survival for the Fittest and Survival from the Fittest can be used as a guide. These books contain special menus for 1-7 days and the corresponding required ingredients. Useful items to pack when self catering include a can opener, chopping knife, extra utensils and storage containers for leftovers. For some locations, power cord adaptors, an in-cup heater and an electric kettle may also be useful.

Restaurant Eating
Athletes often stay in hotels where all meals are provided in the hotel restaurant. On other occasions, athletes or teams may choose to cater for their own breakfasts and lunch and use a restaurant for the evening meal. Where possible, restaurants should be investigated before leaving home. The meal options, cooking styles, opening hours and hygiene of the establishment should be considered. It is useful to book restaurants ahead of time as many businesses are unable to cater for specific requests or large groups at short notice. Discussing the proposed menu with restaurant staff in advance
will minimise problems at mealtime. This is particularly important when athletes have special dietary needs (e.g. vegetarian, food intolerances).

Meals that focus on carbohydrate choices such as rice, noodles and pasta are a good place to start. Add lean sources of protein such as lean meat, fish, chicken, beans or tofu and include plenty of vegetables. Avoid dishes that are deep fried or battered. Buffet style eating can be a good option as it allows athletes a range of choices. It is quicker than waiting for individual meals to arrive and is cost effective. One of the pitfalls of buffet eating is that it is easy to over indulge. This can be avoided by planning meals in advance and leaving the buffet when full. If using the same restaurant for more than a few days, vary the menu from day to day rather than within a meal to avoid boredom. If possible, avoid being solely reliant on restaurant/fast food options. They can be time consuming, expensive and a nutritional challenge.

Snacks
Snacks are an important component of eating and recovery nutrition plans for most athletes, however access to quality snacks can be difficult when travelling. It pays to take a supply of portable, non-perishable snack foods that are unlikely to be available at the destination. It may be useful to send a package of supplies ahead to decrease baggage. Remember to check with customs/quarantine regarding foods that are restricted from crossing certain borders.

Useful Food Items To Take
-cereal bars
-breakfast cereal
-canned snack pack fruits
-dried fruit
-instant noodles
-jam, honey, peanut butter, Vegemite
-powdered sports drink
-powdered liquid meal supplements
-powdered milk
-concentrated fruit juice
-baked beans and spaghetti

Hotels usually only cater for 3 meals/day. Arrange for snacks such as yoghurt, fruit and cereal bars to be placed out at meals so that athletes can take them for snacks later in the day. Alternatively, arrange for a communal area to be stocked with snacks (i.e. the manager's room).

Travelling by Air
Meals and Snacks
Athletes are not used to forced inactivity therefore hours spent on a plane may lead to boredom. It is important that athletes avoid over eating to relieve boredom. Taking other activities on board, drinking water regularly and chewing sugar-free gum can decrease the temptation to snack excessively on long flights. Alternatively, athletes with high-energy needs may struggle to meet their needs if they rely solely on in-flight catering. This may cause the athlete to arrive at the competition destination with reduced fuel stores. Several strategies can be taken to minimise these risks to performance:
Find out if special meals (e.g. sports, low-fat, vegetarian) are available on the flight.

Enquire about the in-flight menu and timing of the meal service in advance.
-On long flights, try to adopt a similar meal and sleep pattern to that anticipated at your destination. This may help to reduce the effects of jet lag.
-Athletes with reduced energy needs should pay particular attention to meals and snacks provided during the flight. It is not necessary to eat everything offered.
-It may be better to take your own snacks rather than be tempted by all the extra tid bits offered in flight.
-It is advisable to pack extra snacks in carry-on luggage. Food available for sale at airports tends to be expensive and it can be difficult to find nutritious options. It is always useful to have some supplies in case of unexpected delays.

In-Flight Fluid
The risk of becoming dehydrated on long flights is high as the pressurised cabins cause increased fluid losses from the skin and lungs. Symptoms of dehydration may include headaches or slight constipation. It is inadequate to rely on cabin service for fluid as the serve sizes of drinks is very small. Athletes should take their own supply of bottled water onto the flight to supplement the water, juice and soft drink provided in the air.

Sports drinks are also a useful choice as they provide a small amount of sodium that helps promote thirst (therefore encourages a greater fluid intake), and decreases urine losses. Aim to drink approximately 1 cup per hour during the flight. Caffeine-containing fluids such as tea, coffee and cola drinks may cause increased urine production, but can still contribute to a positive fluid balance in athletes (especially in those who regularly drink caffeinated drinks). Alcohol should be avoided on flights.

Food Safety at the Destination
Gastrointestinal problems are common when travelling to
foreign destinations. These can occur in both developing countries and 'safe' destinations. Adopting good personal hygiene and food safety practices will help to decrease the risk of infection and illness.

If the local water is unsafe to drink:
-Drink only bottled water or drinks from sealed containers.
-Avoid ice in drinks.
-Clean teeth with bottled water.
-Avoid salad vegetables unless washed in bottled or boiled water.
-Only eat fruit if it can be peeled.

In 'high risk' areas:
-Eat only from reputable hotels or well known franchises.
-Avoid street stalls and markets.
-Be wary of fish and shellfish.
-Only consume food that is steaming hot or has been refrigerated.

At all destinations:
-Avoid sharing cups, bottles or utensils as infections and illness can be transmitted this way.

If vomiting or diarrhoea does occur, it is important to replace lost fluids and electrolytes. Oral rehydration solutions and a safe water supply should be used. A bland diet consisting of dry toast, crackers, biscuits and rice may help. Avoid alcohol, fatty foods and dairy foods until the diarrhoea has ceased.

Food at the Competition Venue
Unfortunately, most sporting venues provide food choices such as deep fried snack foods, crisps and chocolate. Nutritious options are often hard to find. Athletes should carry pre and post exercise snacks and drinks to the venue to ensure that appropriate choices are readily available. Sandwiches, cereal bars, fruit, juice, liquid meal supplements and bottled or powdered sports drinks are ideal. Check that the venue has accessible water outlets and that the water is safe to drink. Carry your own bottled water if the water supply is in doubt.

Case Study
The following case study outlines the strategy an AIS sports dietitian used to assist a volleyball team survive an international trip. The team travelled to India for 3 weeks. It was the first overseas trip for many of the athletes.

Strategy 1: Assess Travel Itinerary and Competition Schedule
The team schedule, accommodation, dining options and goals were discussed with coaching staff.
Players were to train or compete daily. 3 meals per day were to be provided by hotel restaurants.
Coaching staff and senior players who had competed in India previously were consulted regarding anticipated food availability, quality, safety and potential problems.

Strategy 2: Identify Potential Nutrition Issues
-Possible avoidance of local food due to unfamiliarity and dislike of spicy food.
-Dehydration (high temperatures and humidity).
-Limited recovery time between sessions.
-Availability of recovery foods and fluids.
-Side effects of plane travel (first training session scheduled for the day of arrival).
-High risk of gastrointestinal disturbances.

Strategy 3: Education Prior to Travel
Activities were planned prior to travel to help avoid potential problems and to ensure appropriate nutritional strategies were followed.

-An Indian cooking night was organised for team members to increase awareness of Indian foods.
The team was educated on hydration strategies and hygiene issues. Bottled water was known to be readily available in India.
-The team was educated on issues regarding plane travel. Each athlete was provided with a small pack containing snacks, water and sports drink for use on the flight.
-The team was supplied with a range of portable foods to supplement the player's eating plans and cater for recovery needs. Useful utensils were also provided. Team provisions included:

-cereal bars
-cereal
-powdered milk
-instant noodles
-small tins of baked beans and spaghetti
-powdered liquid meal supplement
-powdered sports drink
-powdered oral rehydration solution
-electric kettle
-power adaptor plug
-can opener

Outcome
Players and coaches commented that the preparation and education prior to traveling was of great benefit. This was the first trip to India where no one became sick. This was attributed to the education players received prior to departure and the provision of safe snack choices. The athletes had confidence that they could adhere to good nutritional strategies while in a foreign environment. This helped the team perform to their full potential.

The Science & Art of School Rowing

The Science & Art of School Rowing.
By Nick Lloyd – Director of Rowing Shore School, NSW, Australia.
From Keystrokes NZ Coaching Newsletter, March 05.
-
Recent achievements of the Shore School 1st 8+
-National Schoolboy VIII title 2002, 2003, 2004
-Head of the River winner 2003, 2004
-NSW Schoolboy VIII title 2003, 2004
-Unbeaten in any schoolboy race 2003-2004
-New Zealand National U19 and U21 VIII titles 2004
-Riverview Gold Cup winner 2004

We inherit in the GPS part of the shed boys with certain attributes:
-Confidence/self-belief
-Tenacity
-Discipline
-Focus

This can be attributed to the excellent junior program, characterised by:
-Organisation
-Cooperation
-Consistency
-Prioritising the interests of the group rather than the individual
-Setting of high standards
-Competitive training

The application of technology:
-Video Analysis Software: Siliconcoach
-Excellent resolution
-Can play at normal or slow speed, or frame by frame, forward or backward
-Can have up to four athletes on the screen at any one time or overlay athletes for comparison purposes
-Can overdub commentary
-Can draw lines, arrows, grids on the screen to provide a frame of reference or highlight features
-Can measure angles, time, distance, speed, acceleration and display results in table or graph form
-Can package presentations with playing software, then burn onto a CD for the athletes to take away with them

Shaping the right mindset:
The positive mindset we inherit from the junior ranks needs then to be refined for the challenges of rowing at the top schoolboy level

The 1st VIII, for the past three years, has applied a simple yet highly effective philosophy, developed by one of the parents – Dr Jacques van Schalkwyk. Once a week, Jacques has spent thirty minutes with the boys, working progressively through the Eight Ways of Awesome Athletes. He works very closely with the coach to ensure that his approach
is customised to the sport of rowing and of course the boys themselves

The 8 ways of awesome athletes – moving from good to great to awesome:
-Begin with passion
-Believe you can
-Focus your action
-Do it as one
-Fuel your energy
-Bite the bullet
-Break the barrier
-Act with character

Begin with passion:
-Assisting the athletes to formulate a vision that inspires passionate commitment
-Breaking the vision down into clear goals that guide their actions and can be used to measure their success
-In 2003 the crew’s goal was to become an Awesome VIII. When asked what that meant, they said that meant remaining undefeated in every race they entered, including heats. They in fact chose to never use the term “heat” as this may have caused some in the boat to row simply to qualify. This goal to become awesome was broken down further into goals for each training session and of course goals for each phase of the race.

Focus your action:
Teaching the athletes to focus on the task at hand, one step at a time
Encouraging them to do it with ice in their veins

Do it as one:
Aligning the minds in the crew by:
-Creating a sense of belonging
-Reminding them of their shared vision
-Ensuring each individual fully understands how they can contribute to achieving this vision
-Building on their inner desire to be the best they can be

Fuel your energy:
-Becoming awesome is a journey, not an event
-The athletes will be energised by the push effect as they begin with passion and the pull effect as they near their destination
-In-between these two phases, they need to be energised to sustain their momentum by:
-Redefining the doldrums as opportunities
-Reinvigorating their dreams and reminding them of the importance of their actions
-Variety and surprise
-Leading with optimism

Bite the bullet:
-Helping the athletes to:
-Persist through adversity
-Remain calm under stress
-Developing the will to succeed - not just the want. The coach needs to nurture those athletes who will walk over hot coals to succeed and use them to inspire the others

On the day of the State Championships, in searing heat, the bow man collapsed with a severe migraine headache in the last 200m of the final of the Men’s U21 VIII race. The crew scraped across the line in third place after having won its heat in the quickest time. One hour later it won the Champion Schoolboy VIII race with a rower from the 2nd VIII in the bow seat rowing his fourth 2000m race for the day. Four weeks before the Head of the River, the crew lost its four man to malaria (caught in Bali in the holidays). He was the top sculler in the crew and considered by
all to be a key player. Bringing up the seven man from the 2nd VIII caused a major reshuffle and some concerns about the crew’s ability to sustain its winning form. The crew bounced back immediately, winning the Men’s Open VIII at the Sydney Rowing Club Regatta that same week and the Australian Schoolboy title one week later.

Break the barrier:
-Encouraging the athletes to do what the competition is not prepared to do in order to break through the performance barriers
The first barrier was considered to be that point in the 3rd 500m when so many rowers “hit the wall”. The crew was encouraged to make that point their biggest opportunity – they could stay in their comfort zone or make the barrier their friend and push through it. They were given confidence to do so by practicing it in selected lead-up regattas.
The second barrier, which many saw as beyond the finish line was pulled forward to the beginning of the last 30 strokes and a similar attitude to it was adopted.

Act with character:
-Develop and encourage in the athletes a sense of:
-Grace
-Humility
-Integrity
-Trust
-In the absence of these, they will neither earn nor deserve the respect of others

The boys were taught that in winning the Head of the River they may be considered successful, but unless they acted with humility and integrity, they would not be respected and thus not could not be considered awesome.

They were also encouraged to trust in each other’s commitment to the crew – that they were all in this together. This gave each boy confidence to break through the two barriers because he knew he would not be doing it alone.

Be the Coach You Want To Be

Be the Coach You Want To Be.
By Peter Davis.
From Olympic Coach Spring 2005.
-
There are no rules or clear pathways to become a great coach. There are no laws that say you should do this or you should do that. There is no set or established plan that you must follow to become a good coach or a great coach. John Wooden did it his way, Bill Walsh did it his way, and Pat Summit does it her way. So how do you figure out how to become a good coach, a better coach, or a great coach? How do you become the coach you want to be? Is there a special course to take, or a special book to read? We often read biographies about the great “guru” coaches of some sports and they all seem to be different. Some have tried to learn everything they can about their sport, or are great “historians “ of their sport, some have studied great leaders in business and military history and employ those same tactics in their career and sport. Some are not the greatest tacticians, but are great people managers. Some might have even just been in the right place at the right time— but if they became great coaches they were more than just lucky.

From my experience working with and observing some leading coaches there are certain predictable abilities and characteristics that the great coaches have in common. They can be summarized into several different categories, including (but not limited to) knowledge and education, attitude, planning and character. We all know some coaches who know a lot about the game but have questionable character and integrity. We all know some coaches who have planned and managed their career to perfection, but are not the leaders in knowledge (beyond x’s and o’s) of their sport. Some are great recruiters or talent scouts— but lousy teachers.There are no “rules.” Nothing is mandatory in this business, but if you want to be the best you can be, here are some guidelines.

KNOWLEDGE AND EDUCATION
You don’t have to have a “PhD” in your sport; but if you want to be the best, you should seek to know as much about the sport as you can. Respect the sport and the fact that there is a body of knowledge to understand about any sport. If you treat your sport and coaching as inconsequential, then you won’t be taken seriously. Take as many formal courses as you can. If your sport offers coach education course seek them out and take them. If your sport doesn’t have formal courses, explore the International Federation for your sport — sometimes they offer coach education courses. If you can’t find courses in your own sport, look for coach education courses in other sports. In fact, once you have taken all the coach education courses in your sport it is a great learning experience to take coach education courses in other sports
Cross fertilization works wonders for innovation and creativity and setting yourself apart from your peers. Look everywhere for coach education material — books, DVDs, videos and so on.The more you know the better you will be. And think beyond your sport. Look for courses on leadership, communication, time management in other areas beyond coaching; skills in other industries transfer well into coaching and vice versa.

EXPERIENCE
Nothing beats “having been there done that”, but you can’t always start out with the head job and get all the experience you need at once. Volunteer as much as you can for as many different situations as you can. Find the coaches you want to be around or the situations where you need more experience and volunteer. Take stats, shoot video, put up the nets and shag balls. Do whatever it takes to get some experience. Any time you can be around top coaches (and athletes) is time well spent—as long as you have a plan and make good use of the time.

PLAN IT AND MAKE IT WORTHWHILE
Volunteering is good in itself, but plan it and make it worthwhile. Don’t just volunteer to “spend time. ”Volunteer to learn —it’s an investment in your career if you plan it and work it. Make a list of the strengths you want to cultivate, or the weaknesses you want to strengthen. Volunteer in situations that will help you get better in that area. This might include things like: improving time out communication strategies, managing star athletes, understanding the application of medicine and science better, dealing with volunteers/parents or any number of other areas. Figure out what you need to do and know, and where you can get it. When you are volunteering take notes, observe what happens around you and ask questions. But remember, the objective (or at least the learning objective) when you are volunteering is not to change the coach you are working with or take over the program—it is to learn what to do or not do when it is your turn and to develop your own personal coaching character and style.

PUT YOURSELF IN THE RIGHT ENVIRONMENT
Volunteering is one way to put yourself in the right environment, however, not everyone can always find the time to do that. If you can’t find a way to volunteer, find a way to be around the best people. Who is the best coach in your league, your city, or your State? Make plans to be around these people, whether it is in the same competitions, or whether you just go to their competitions and observe how they operate. Invite them to come and talk to your team or school or club. Don’t just limit yourself to the best coaches. Find a way to be around good people and experts in other fields. Observe how they operate. How they deal with people? How they meet challenges and handle setbacks?

Establish a personal pattern of learning and improving Most of the things I mentioned above revolve around establishing a pattern of learning. You should take every opportunity to observe and learn from the best (and the worst) coaches. As a coach you will be at literally hundreds of competitions over time. Focus on your game and your own teams while you are in competition; but after that is over, spend some time observing other coaches at work. You can even get a lot out of watching college and professional coaches on television. Observe how they react to success and failure, how they react to adversity (bad calls by officials, bad decisions by athletes etc) on the field, how they interact with officials. Reflect on their behavior and reactions and visualize what you would do and how you would react if (when) you were in that situation. As well as observing other coaches, how about observing your self?

I have said in previous articles in the Olympic Coach magazine that coaches are spending more and more time filming and analyzing their athletes (and their competition). This is great; but how about turning the camera on yourself for a while. Ask a friend or another coach film you at work —either in a practice or competition situation (preferable both) and observe how you operate. How do you communicate with athletes? What is the balance between positive and negative feedback? How do you function in time outs? What is the ratio between activity and verbal instruction in your practices? How do you spread your interaction between all the athletes on the team in competition and training? There are a thousand things to observe and that is not the focus of this article. The point is, how are you learning? How and what are you learning from the great coaches and what are you learning from yourself?

LISTEN TO YOUR ATHLETES AND PARENTS.
Don’t be afraid to seek input and feedback from athletes and parents—.at the right time. Don’t ask them how you rate as a coach 10 minutes after you have lost the league championship—structure it. At the beginning of the season, when you lay out the season plan, your philosophy and expectations for the athletes, team and parents, explain that one of your goals is to improve your own skills as a coach. Let everyone know what you hope to achieve as a coach and let everyone know that at certain times in the season you will be seeking their honest feedback about how you are doing and what areas you need to improve...just like you would do with your athletes

Some coaches will argue against this strategy because they think that athletes and/or parents will give negative reviews because you have lost games, didn’t get enough playing time, or because they have hidden agendas. This might be the case sometimes; but ask yourself how could you possibly evaluate yourself and improve your skills if you avoid honest feedback from two of the most critical stakeholders in your profession. If you structure feedback sessions or “report cards” so that they seek honest feedback with examples of strengths and weaknesses you will filter out the “disgruntled” athlete or parent and get to your true evaluation.

WHAT DOES YOUR NETWORK LOOK LIKE?
Not many coaches make it “to the top” by themselves. Most of the best ones have at least one mentor. Most of them spent a lot of time around coaches when they were growing up as either a child of a coach or as a young athlete. Most of them have a strong support team behind them. Make sure you identify people whom you admire and can learn from and seek them out as mentors. Most good/great coaches, who are leaders, value what they do and are proud of their profession and love their sport. They often love the chance to mentor others who have the same love of coaching and commitment to learning as they do. Take advantage of it. If you ask someone to be a mentor and they say no—don’t give up, keep looking until you find someone who will help you. It works both ways, don’t be afraid to be a mentor to someone else. Being objective and reflecting on someone else’s performance can sometimes open your eyes to yourself. And don’t forget that your mentor(s) can come from outside sport and coaching.

THE BOTTOM LINE....
The bottom line is that most great coaches don’t go from novice volunteer coach to a “great” coach instantaneously. They work hard, they sacrifice and sometimes they take chances. In all cases, they love the game and they respect the sport and the profession. They make a commitment to learning and excellence. Every opportunity is a learning opportunity. They have standards and a coaching philosophy and they don’t compromise. Being a great coach doesn’t mean winning the World Series or the Super Bowl—you can all be great coaches at your respective level....but you have to plan it and work it. It won’t happen by itself. It starts right now...at your next practice, your next competition, the next book you read, the next video you watch. What are you waiting for?

Submaximal Estimation of Vo2 Max

Submaximal Estimation of Vo2 Max.
From Thor Nielsen Lecture Notes 1999.
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The Oxygen Carrying Capacity of Blood Hemoglobin
In men there is approximately 15-16g of hemoglobin in each 100ml of blood. The value is about 5- 10% less for women and averages about 14g per 100ml of blood. The reason for the difference may be the stimulating effect on red blood cell production of the ‘male’ hormone testosterone. Each gram of hemoglobin can combine loosely with 1.34ml of oxygen. Thus if the hemoglobin content of the blood is known, its oxygen carrying capacity can easily be calculated as follows:

Blood O2 capacity = Hemoglobin x O2 capacity of hemoglobin
(ml per 100ml blood) (g per 100ml blood) x (1.34ml per gram)

On average, approximately 20ml of oxygen would be carried with the hemoglobin in each 100ml of whole blood when its hemoglobin is fully saturated with oxygen.

12g x 1.34ml = 16.08 ml of O2/100ml blood
13g x 1.34ml = 17.42 ml of O2/100ml blood
14g x 1.34ml = 18.76 ml of O2/100ml blood
15g x 1.34ml = 20.10 ml of O2/100ml blood
16g x 1.34ml = 21.44 ml of O2/100ml blood
17g x 1.34ml = 22.78 ml of O2/100ml blood

Sub Maximal Test to Estimate Stroke Volume and VO2 Max

Equipment:
Concept II Model C/D Rowing Ergometer
Heart rate Monitor Polar S210/S610/S810 or other HRM that records HR

Protocol:
Warm up: 5min - Max Heart rate 135.
Rest after warm up: 3min – No activity
Test Time: 5min at prescribed load. Must maintain accurate watts. No large changes

Recommended Load on Concept II:
Women -160 Watts
Junior Men/Lightweight Men -210 Watts
Senior Men -260 Watts

Data Collected:
Average heart rate for last 90 seconds of 5 minute test.
Collect heart rate data every 10s for last 90s then average this data

The following table shows the oxygen consumption required to maintain work at the different loads. The corresponding cardiac output is based on an expected haemoglobin content of 15gr./ml blood.

Work Load VO2 l/min Cardiac Output l/min Card Output ml/min
110 2.25 16.25 16250
160 2.75 18.75 18750
210 3.45 23.25 23250
260 4.15 25.75 25750
310 5.05 30.25 30250

The calculation used to estimate stroke volume
Cardiac output (ml) / Heart rate = Estimated Stroke Volume
(From Table) (last 90s) (ESV)

Use of stroke volume to estimate Max VO2:
Max heart rate x Estimated stroke volume =Blood transport l/min.
(Max HR) (ESV)

It is expected that 15gr. Haemoglobin per ml of blood gives 200ml O2 per litre of blood.
Blood transport l/min x 200ml = Oxygen transport in L/min

This is then multiplied by an utilisation factor:
Junior – 80%,
Senior B International (U23) – 85%,
Senior A International – 90%.

E.g.
200 Max HR x 150 ESV = 30 l/min blood transport
30 l x 0.2 = 6 l/min max O2 transport
Utilisation: Senior A International – 90%
Estimated VO2 Max = 6.00 x 0.90
= 5.4l/min

Testing: How, Why, Who, What, and When

Testing: How, Why, Who, What, and When (and how to make sense of it).
By Wayne Goldsmith,
From Olympic Coach, Volume 17, No 3, Fall 2005, pp 13 -15
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A renowned swimming coach was walking up and down the side of the pool working with a world record holder. A younger, relatively inexperienced coach, eager to learn asked, “How do you know how your swimmer is going?” How do you know when she is ready to do her best?” The senior coach replied, “I just know”.

Testing does not replace the skilled eye or instinctual feel of an experienced and talented coach. It aims to provide measurement and objectivity to some of the elements of performance that coaches “see” and “feel” and “know”. This article discusses some of the current issues in the testing of high performance athletes and looks at the crucial aspects of the measurement and evaluation of elite sports performance.

THE TESTING PROCESS: NOT A ONE OFF EVENT!
Testing is not a one off event-it is a process that begins and ends with a test. The testing process sequence includes:
-Coach determines the need for testing and discusses the test protocols with a sports science/sports medicine professional.
-Testing is scheduled and logistics, equipment, personnel etc. are organized.
-Pre-test athlete education session organized (if appropriate).
-Testing is conducted.
-Results and data collected, collated and managed.
-Results and data evaluated.
-Results and data discussed with coach and athlete.
-Coach considers results and data and makes training program decisions based on the information.
-The next test date is scheduled.
-Athlete is retested to determine progress.
-Process repeats!

Testing is a useful coaching tool, but it is one part of the overall process of athlete preparation and development.

COMPETITION BASED TESTING
Of course, the best form of testing for high performance athletes in elite sporting programs is... competition.

Competition provides the unique combination of factors that are only found on the pitch, on the track, on the court, in the pool or on the water during actual games and events.

However, it is often difficult for the coach to be effective in competition based testing as he/she is focused on observing the athlete in competition conditions and perhaps even making strategic/tactical decisions based on those observations.

Therefore, it is essential that the elite coach identifies a reliable, experienced support team of professionals who can manage the details of competition based testing leaving the coach free to coach.

After the competition or perhaps even during rest periods, the support team can provide the coach and athlete with detailed analysis of the performance and together work towards a strategy to improve competition results.

HOW TO TEST
The perfect test is one where the athlete is accurately evaluated in the precise conditions likely to be experienced in competition and the results of the test directly relate to competition performances. This is invariably difficult to achieve as there are various factors experienced in competition which are near to impossible to replicate in a training or testing environment. For example: How do you measure a striker’s ability to score a goal under game pressure when the only time they face game pressure is during a game?

How can you test a swimmer’s ability to break the world record when they will only be swimming at world record speed over race distance during the world record swim? Typically, testing protocols and methods are single discipline perspectives of one element of performance, e.g. tests based on physiology, biomechanics, psychology, nutrition or medical. The challenge for the coach is to effectively manage this narrow perspective to gain an overall understanding of the athlete’s abilities and capacities at the time of testing.

WHY TO TEST?
Generally, there are many reasons why a coach would want to test an athlete. Once training and competition goals have been clearly established, a coach would test athlete:
-To provide information and feedback on the progress of the training/preparation of the athlete— Are we on track to achieve our goals?
-To provide information on specific elements of the athlete’s capacities and abilities — Is the athlete developing and improving?
-To determine areas of weakness or limitation — Are there problem areas or issues that need to be overcome?

WHO TO TEST?
Practically any athlete can be tested. Even young athletes can be tested for skill development and technical progress. Young athletes can also be educated on how to develop the skills necessary to perform the testing protocols they are likely to experience as senior athletes. For example, many tests require the ability to accurately maintain a precise speed, power output, pace or time. These skills can be taught to relatively young athletes as part of their development process and to prepare them to complete senior testing protocols as they mature.

WHERE TO TEST?
Field or laboratory-the toughest question in the testing puzzle. Both have advantages and disadvantages. Field testing can be simple, easy, inexpensive and meaningful to the coach and athlete but can be difficult to control, owing to environmental factors and a wide range of other complicating variables experienced in the training and competition setting. Laboratory testing is often expensive, requires complex equipment and trained personnel to operate it and in many cases, has the considerable challenge of making the test results meaningful and specific to the actual sports environment.

Tests for oxygen exchange dynamics (e.g.VO2 max) have generally been performed in laboratories as the availability of precision equipment allows for more accurate testing. However, the limitation in laboratory testing is in the capacity to reproduce actual sports specific training and competition conditions. For example, the measurement of VO2 max on a cycle ergometer or rowing machine in the lab is based on well established testing protocols. However, the lab cannot exactly reproduce the external environmental factors (bike or road conditions, weather, hills, wind resistance: rowing-the water conditions, current, weather, wind, boat friction/water resistance) that athletes experience in training and racing. In the end, a combination of regular field based testing (because of the practical, easy and immediate nature of the testing) together with occasional laboratory testing (because of accuracy, reliability and quality) is a good option.

WHAT TO TEST?
Selecting what to test for is a complex issue for every coach. Universities and other professional organizations can provide the coach with a wide variety of tests and toys all with the promise of quick easy solutions to performance challenges
One of the biggest problems for coaches is that many do not clearly identify what it is they want to test. As a result, when a sports science professional suggests what is possible, the coaches respond like the kid in a “toy shop” wanting a little of everything. Deciding what to test starts with a simple philosophical question for every coach:

“WHAT DO I BELIEVE ARE THE KEY DETERMINANTS OF SUCCESSFUL PERFORMANCE IN MY SPORT”
For example, as a coach of marathon runners you decide that the key determinants for success in your sport are oxygen exchange dynamics and biomechanical efficiency at 80-90% of maximum speed. Once you have made this philosophical decision, finding the right tests to evaluate the athletes is relatively easy. As a coach of a soccer team, your philosophy is that the best players are skillful at high speed. Again, the choice of tests is a simple matter once you have decided what you want to look for. Another advantage of establishing your own testing philosophy is that “unless you stand for something, you will fall for anything”. Sometimes coaches fall for promises of magic pills and quick fixes from sports science professionals looking for subjects for a study or research project.

WHEN TO TEST?
Effective testing can be done at any time during the training or competition program depending on what you are looking for. Tests of maximum capacity or peak abilities are generally best performed when the athlete is rested and unfatigued. Traditionally this has meant testing during or at the end of a rest or recovery microcycle. However, if you as a coach have determined that you would like to assess the impact of physiological fatigue on skill and speed, then testing tired athletes is consistent with your overall program philosophy.

SUMMARY — THE 10 GOLDEN RULES OF TESTING
Test for things that make sense. Testing VO2 max in lawn bowlers is not logical
Test because you believe it will make a difference. Just testing for testing sake or because the equipment is available is not the most effective use of training time.
Test with a performance focused goal. Test elements of performance that you believe will make a direct impact on performance. Try not to get trapped in testing just to try and get a progressively better test result unless it is directly related to actual competition performance of the development of more effective training protocols.
Don’t ask for a single test-ask for a series. If you make the commitment to be involved in a testing program, ask for more than one test. One off tests rarely tell the whole story.
If you are working with sports science/sports medicine professionals, demand that any test results are provided within 24 hours and that the professional allocates time to explain the results and their relevance to your program. This applies particularly if you have agreed to allow your athletes to be involved in a research project.

Think multi-disciplinary. If the athletes are being tested through lactate analysis, also measure and observe technical changes to assess the impact of fatigue on technique and skills. If they are being evaluated using heart rate; note speed, technique and if possible assess psychological skills at the same time.

Be visionary. If you as the coach see the need for a test to evaluate an element of performance which you believe is crucial to the success of the athlete, develop your own test! Ask a sport science/sports medicine professional to help you with the measurement side of things, but many great coaches use simple field tests that are meaningful to them but which may lack absolute scientific validity. Many scientific tests were originally ideas inspired by visionary coaches.
Keep records. Try to record all test results. Have assistant coaches, parents of athletes, injured players, reserve team players-anyone-trained to record (accurately) test results.
Measure what is measurable-Control what is controllable- What can be measured and controlled is likely to be meaningful. ( Bill Sweetenham)

Take time to educate athletes about testing. In time, senior athletes can learn to do some or most testing protocols themselves. Athletes can learn to monitor their own heart rates, take their own times, count their strides, record their feelings... and the better educated your athletes are to self manage/self monitor their own testing, the more meaningful the results are to them. Also, having educated athletes who can self monitor means the coach has the freedom to coach, observe and learn during the testing process. As it is with your overall program, testing is Athlete Focused and Coach Driven-manage the testing process so that you can provide your athletes with the best possible opportunity to achieve their performance goals.

Wayne Goldsmith is an Australlian Swimming Coach as well as a consultant to various international swimming programs. Wayne was the winner of the Eunice Gill Award for Outstanding Contribution to Coaching Education in Australia. He is a Level II coach in Swimming, Track and Field and Triathlon.

The Full Squat from The Trainers Perspective

The Full Squat from The Trainers Perspective
By Danny O’Dell.
From Issue 23 of Successful Coaching Newsletter
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We dissected the technique of performing a full squat in Successful Coaching Issue 21- The King of exercises: the Squat. In this issue, we are going to describe what the coach should be looking at while the lifter is under the bar. The task of the coach is to be constantly aware of the proper mechanics of the squat and then 'cueing' the lifter to perform them in the right manner to make progress and to avoid injury.

In order to be 'technically' correct and successful, the athlete has to develop engram patterns very precisely during the early developmental stages of the learning curve. By definition, an engram is a neuromuscular, subconscious pathway of performing a physical movement. Superior exercise adeptness occurs from repeating this training process. At the top level of training the mind no longer consciously dwells on the exercise movement, instead the elite lifter is able to focus on the shear muscle energy necessary to move the weight. Thus, the move is ingrained in the subconscious and automatic. Can you envision yourself stepping out from the rack with a six hundred pound barbell and then having to decide if you needed to first move your hips back or bend your knees to begin the lift.

A well-trained coach will effectively assist the athlete performing the exercise by providing both verbal and visual cues as to how best to perform the move. Improvements in technique will be seen in most lifters if the coach pays attention to the details of the lift and provides meaningful feedback. This means the coach has to observe the athlete from a 360 degree perspective. Videotape is an excellent motivator, as the lifter will clearly recognize errors of form, especially with the coach reviewing the tape with them.

The coach must always keep in mind one important aspect:
Is the movement under total control?

If the load is not completely under control, all of attending spotters must take prompt action to protect the lifter from harm. The coach will have to pay close attention to these three major safety points:

Telling the spotters to assist in re-racking the bar if they are not aware of the lifters predicament
Lowering the weight on the bar so the exercise may be completed correctly the next repetition
Making certain the athlete gets additional rest time before trying the next set

Coaching points
Observation from the front vantage point at the beginning of the lift:
Has the lifter centered the bar firmly on the back and shoulders
Is the lifter in an upright standing position and not leaning over- the bar placement will dictate this portion of the stance.
The low bar position causes the athlete to bend forward in order to keep the bar centered over the balance point of their body
Is the chest held high at the beginning of the lift
Is the head flexed forward or extended slightly upward, but not looking at the ceiling
Is the bar properly situated and secure on the back, i.e. not dropping downward
Is the back neutral to slightly arched and in a braced position
Is the lifter standing straight and tall and not tilted to either one side or the other
Remind the lifter to abdominal brace
Start of the lift from the rear observation point
Is the bar symmetrically loaded with the correct weight on both ends
Are the collars securely attached to both sides
Is the bar correctly positioned, spaced and resting on the shoulders/upper back at the correct height for the athlete
Are the lifters hands in the positioned properly and placed evenly on the bar
Has the lifter placed their body under the bar and are they in the correct position to lift the bar off the hooks
Has the head remained correctly in line with the back and not flexed forward
Is the back rigid, slightly arched and braced
Start of the lift as seen from the right side
Are the feet aligned evenly and not forward or backward relative to one another
Is the athlete standing tall
Have the hips started the rearward movement, or have the knees started bending first
Is the back staying straight and solid
Has the head stayed in line with the back in a neutral position or is it slightly extended
The two-three steps back and the initial set up as observed from the front of the lifter
Is the chest still kept high
Have the two to three steps to the rear been small enough to clear the rack pins
Is the body still vertically aligned or has it twisted off to either side
Is there movement in the hips as the bar set up is competed
Has the movement been stabilized and did it stop
Are the feet spaced at lest shoulder width or wider
Are the toes angled outward and remaining in line with the knees
The back out and set up as seen from the rear
Is the movement still under control by the lifter
Is the back still solid and in a slightly arched position
Are the hips starting to move from side to side in a continuing effort to balance the weight load
Are the feet moving around or are they steady and sticking to one place on the platform
Is the bar steady on the shoulders or is it moving around instead of being held firmly in place
The back out and set up as viewed from the athlete's side
Are the back out steps under control
Is the athlete standing tall under the load
Are the feet correctly positioned in relative to one another and front to rear
Is the back solid, slightly arched and braced
The descent as observed directly in front of the lifter
Is the head lined up with the back
Is the head positioned correctly and not tipped off to one side
Are the hips even or are they moving to the side
Are the feet in the correct position and in line with one another
Did the hips move backward before the knees started to flex
The descent as seen from the rear
Are the hips coming backward towards you before movement seen or felt any where else
Is the back staying braced, solid and slightly arched
Are the lower legs remaining perpendicular to the floor
Is the head still in the upright position and not tilted to one side
The descent observed from the sides
Did the hips move backward before any other movement was started
Is the back staying braced, solid and slightly arched
Is the head being kept line with the back or slightly angled upward 10 to 20 degrees
Is the load centered in the middle and slightly to rear of the feet
Is the body tilting forward to any great extent
Does the bar move downward in a straight line: there should be very little movement fore and aft of this imaginary vertical line
Is this imaginary bar path appearing to go from down the ears to the middle of the feet
Has the lifter accelerated the bar toward the bottom of the move
Is the upper body angle in relation to the floor remaining the same throughout the descent phase of the lift
Are the heels firmly in contact with the floor
The bottom position as seen from the front
Is the head in line with the rest of the body
Is the bar still placed evenly on the shoulders
Has the body remained square with the lifting platform or has the athlete started to tip toward one side
Has the body continued to face the front of the rack or lifting platform or have they twisted to one side
Are the knees still aligned over the feet
The bottom position viewed from behind the athlete
Is the back appearing to remain tight, slightly arched and braced or has it flexed at the bottom
Is the bar even on the body from side to side or has it shifted to one side
Has the body tilted to one side
Is the athlete twisting to one side or the other
The bottom position-viewed from the sides of the athlete
Is the back rigid, slightly arched and braced
Is the chest still out
Is the head parallel to the floor or extended slightly at 10 to 20 degrees
Are the lower legs close to perpendicular with the floor
Is the angle of the back and joint hip similar to those of the knees/lower legs
Is the body slanted to one side or the other
Has the body twisted to one side
Are the heels remaining in contact with the floor
The ascent as seen from the front
Did the initial upward move begin with the head and chest starting upward
Did you notice the hands beginning with an upward push on the bar
Is the torso angle staying the same throughout the upward phase
Is the body positioned straight to the front
Has it tipped to one side
Has it twisted on the long axis
Did the body tilt forward
Is the head still stable and at the correct angle
Were the legs and body moving from side to side

VERY IMPORTANT POSITIONAL NOTE: have the knees remained over the feet or did they move into a valgus position (knees move in an inward direction from the midline of the body). A Valgus position may be dangerous and harmful to the Anterior Cruciate ligament. It must be avoided during the lift.

Viewing the ascent from the rear
Did the first upward move start with the chest, head and arms
Did the body shift backward during the first move up
Did the buttocks rise before the head, chest and arms moved upward
Did the buttocks move laterally
Is the bar moving evenly upward without a windmill side to side sway
Is the loaded bar staying in line with the rack and not twisting to one side or the other
The ascent from the sides
Did the buttocks begin to rise before the bar moved upward
Did the knees cave into the valgus position
Did the head and chest remain upright at the beginning of the ascent
Did the back remain solid, slightly arched and braced
Are the knees remaining in line with the feet and not going into valgus or varus (knees move in an outward direction from the midline of the body) positions
Did the body torque to either side

Summary
This is just a small checklist of many of the obvious cues and clues that all professional coaches should have either in a written form or in firmly planted in their minds as they coach their athletes. Dr. Stuart McGill once stated 'Practice makes permanent'. Make sure your athlete's practice time is well spent, technically perfect and constantly re-enforcing and perfecting their individual and correct neuromuscular engram patterns.

Article Reference
This article, written by Danny M. O'Dell , appeared in Issue 23 of the Successful Coaching Newsletter.

About the AuthorDanny O`Dell is a NSCA Certified Strength and Conditioning coach from the USA. He is the author of a number of training manuals including: The Ultimate Bench Press Manual, Wilderness Basics, Strength Training Secrets, Composite Training and Power up your Driving Muscles. Danny has published articles in national and international magazines describing the benefits of living the healthy fitness lifestyle. Danny can be contacted through his website at www.Explosivelyfit.com

The Squat

The King of Exercises – The Squat
By Danny O’Dell.
From Issue 21 of Successful Coaching Newsletter
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Walk into the many commercial gyms located throughout the nation and you will no doubt see a multitude of mirrors and machines spread throughout the facility. Now glance around and take note of all the patrons working out on the 'abdominal' machines' or doing twists on the rotation devices in an effort to 'spot' reduce. You no doubt will also see men and women wearing weight belts as they do endless sets of lightweight barbell or dumbbell curls, maybe with an actual bar in hand, but more than likely seated in a machine.

What do all of these observations have in common with one another?
These well meaning but ill-informed people are for the most part, exercising in a fashion that will not and does not contribute a great deal to the improvement in the fitness, strength or power levels of the human body. In many instances, they are simply enhancing their 'mirror' muscles and not developing the vital structural and muscular changes that will sustain them, as they grow older. Look carefully and you may see a squat rack tucked away in the corner, but you probably will not see anyone using it. This is the fate of the power rack in the majority of the largest commercial gyms, its there but not used very often. Why? Because of the gym owner's fear of someone getting hurt, doing squats. Or using so much weight that it 'scares other members away' or even worse yelling and using chalk to help keep the bar on the shoulders during a heavy lift intimidates other members.

Just what are all of these people trying to accomplish?
Is it to forge the 'Perfect body'? Perhaps they are trying to lose a bit of weight for the upcoming holiday or to tone up their body or maybe to improve their level of fitness. So you ask yourself just what does this have to do with the king of exercises. Well let me tell you it has everything to do with the squat, but in a slightly round about way. A well toned body, which may eventually lead to the perfect body (whatever that may mean) on the way to increased physical fitness and better health all begins with added muscle mass. Added muscle mass increases the basic metabolism rate of the body. This in turn helps to burn a higher percentage of calories throughout the day and into the night. Therefore, even as you sleep, your muscles are helping to keep you trim and slim. The lower body has massive amounts of metabolism increasing potential. The best and most efficient way to tap into this is by doing heavy legwork. Not machine leg curls or leg presses but with squats. Bar on the back, sweat producing, breath taking and heart pounding squats.

Naming the squat the king of all exercises is not without foundation; just look at a few of the benefits of this powerful activity.
Lean muscle mass is increased
Basic metabolism is faster
Your general physical fitness and work capacity are positively improved
Mental and physical energy levels are amplified
You will sleep better
Body fat will be lowered
Endorphins, the body's natural painkillers are released into your body
The heavy load on your shoulders, back and legs helps to make your bones stronger by increasing their mineral density
The connective tissues of your body adapt to the load and in turn become stronger and better able to tolerate the additional stress of the weight

Squats have been blamed for nearly every body ailment in the book due to misinformation and incorrect squatting style. As in all new exercises, if you have not been squatting consistently in the past now is the time to talk to your doctor and get their opinion as to whether or not squatting will benefit you, considering your current health situation. As a lifter, you need to know the correct technique to do any exercise. Some are more tolerant of movement breakdowns than others-the squat is one that is not as forgiving of mistakes in form. Therefore, the following is a mini guide to a successful squat. Each one of the following is a contributor to a successful and correct squat.

Before you begin, make certain you have good spotters assisting. They can help you move backward out of the rack or squat stands by gently guiding you backward into your set up position. Each spotter needs to know how many repetitions you are going to do, or attempt to do before the set begins. You and they must be talking so each one knows the part of the other. The amount of spotting on hand will be determined by your ability to lift the load, the spotter's ability to spot and the combined experience and strength of everyone involved in this endeavour. The power rack is an essential part of the weight room gym and it is the most used piece of equipment in the facility.

The power rack if you are unfamiliar with what they look like is a full cage built to protect the lifter during maximum attempts. The 'J' hooks hold the bar in place until the lifter removes it and backs out into the set up. Position these hooks just below the point where your clavicle hooks into your sternum as you face the bar. Placing them at this height allows the bar to be returned even after it has slipped a bit on your back or after you have slumped over during the lift. Always face the bar as you squat so you can be facing the hooks upon a successful lift. In other words, do not back into the 'J' hooks at the end of your lift. It is too easy to miss them and cause injury to yourself. The power rack has safety pins that are heavy enough to catch the bar if the lift is missed. Correctly setting these pins is an important step to safe squatting. The pins need to be low enough so the lift can go full depth but high enough to allow the lifter to settle down and rest the bar on them if the weight overcomes the lifter.

Hand positioning on the bar needs to be even from side to side yet still allow for total control during the entire lift. Looking at the bar you will see a series of knurling and grooves machined into it. All Olympic bars are grooved the exact same way and the current major brands of squat bars all have a heavy and deep groove pattern directly in the center of the bar. This is to help hold the bar on your back so it will not slip off so readily as would be the case with a smooth center. As you grasp the bar, notice where you have placed your hands in relation to the grooves. Each of your hands will determine the final balance position of the bar on your back. The bar can be gripped in two ways; one is with a closed grip with the thumb and fingers encircling the bar. This is the recommend way and the safest way to hold the bar. The second manner of holding onto the bar is with the open grip, i.e. the thumbs are not circled around the bar. A lack of wrist and shoulder flexibility will predetermine the grip in most cases. Once your hands are in position it is time to get under the bar.

Babies naturally assume a good squatting position. Head up, back straight and heels on the ground

Look directly at the center of the bar, dip under it with your head and rise up on the other side while still keeping your hands on the bar. Positioning the bar on your back is a matter of preference towards either the high bar or low bar style of lifting. In the high bar method, the bar will be resting on top of the posterior deltoids right at the base of the neck. This has a tendency to cause irritation just under the bar. It is used with a wider than shoulder hand grip and tends to cause a straighter up style of lifting. The low bar, on the other hand has the bar placement resting on the lower part of the shoulders. This is a point where the deltoids and traps come together. It is essentially a shelf for the bar and is very comfortable but technically harder to master for an inexperienced lifter. This position of the bar makes for a shorter moment arm of the lift and contributes to a higher load capability. It is well worth learning from a knowledgeable coach.

The use of a lifting belt is controversial. My position is it is NOT NECESSARY unless you are nearing peak weight. Up until then it is an unnecessary crutch and should be avoided. Relying on the belt will not build up the supporting structures of the body. Synergism of muscular action is the key to heavy lifting and a lifting belt takes away this coordinated muscle affect. Strength adaptation takes place under properly designed programs. It does not need artificial assistance at the beginning of a career. Lifting within your capacities and building up your strength will serve you well in the end. Leave the belt off.

Should you look up or down?
The head should be neutral of extended ten to twenty degrees with an eye on the horizon for maintenance of balance. If your head drops it carries the back with it and the back soon flexes forward. Once the back flexes tremendous compressive and shear forces result in the lower back regions. Correct form and correct technique should always precede any weight increases on the bar.

Back position
The back has to be held in a neutral to slightly arched position or injury will result. Bracing your abdominals adds additional support to the center of the body to assist the lower back muscles in carrying the load. If you are unable to lift the weight, then re-rack it or lower it to the safety pins and remove some of the load. If your back rounds off consider the many excellent back exercises to increase strength in this critical area of your body. It takes only a moment of foolishness or inattentiveness to seriously injure your back.


The initial steps back
With your hands and back set up, its time to move the weight out of the rack. Start out by lifting the weight with your legs and not your back. Now move it off the 'J' hooks. Take a small step back ward, followed by a second small step with the other foot. Move them into the set up position as you are stepping backward. Make certain they are both aligned evenly and are a little wider than shoulder width apart at the end. The wide stance may be uncomfortable at first but as you become accustomed to it, you will find it produces the most powerful lift style of all.

Controlling your breathing
While under the heavy bar it is easy to get into the habit of holding your breath during the execution of the lift. Holding your breath does help in moving the heavy iron as it stabilizes your core but it comes with a cost to your overall health. And that cost is a tremendous increase in your blood pressure. High blood pressure has been known to directly cause damage to your body by raising the risk of having a stroke, causing a heart attack, damaging your kidneys and increasing the risk of a blood vessel aneurism. Any of which will cause a quick cessation of your lifting for the day.

Descending with the bar
Now that your feet are in position take a nice deep breath and get ready to give the weight a ride. The downward portion of the lift always begins with your hips moving backward first. Bending the knees first sets you up for problems in the middle and end of the lift by causing you to have to adjust for the flexed knees. Moving your hips and buttocks to the rear will set the squat up perfectly. Visualize trying to touch the wall with your buttocks as you move backward with the hips. Beginning with the hips allows the body to drop into a picture perfect squat with the lower legs perpendicular to the floor and the back straight and solid. The hip flexors and extensors, two of the most powerful muscle groups in the body will be at their maximum potential in this position.

If you have ever seen a small child of one to two years old squat you will have witnessed an absolutely perfect squat. Their little bottoms are nearly resting on the floor, their little lower legs are perpendicular to the floor and their backs are ramrod straight. Here is an excellent exercise to begin learning how to squat if you are unfamiliar with this technique. Stand next to an open doorway, hold onto the doorjamb with both hands held about mid chest height. Place your feet one foot away from the wall and lean back onto your heels. Now drop down to the floor. Do not let lose of the doorjamb or you will fall backwards. Notice where your lower legs are, nearly straight up and down, aren't they. This is the ideal squat position and with the exception of many elite lifters one that is rarely achieved in the amateur ranks.

The bottom position
Once you have arrived at the bottom of the lift the easy part is over because now you have to get back up again. A successful rise separates the 'wannabes' from the 'doers'. The start back up begins with a hard push on the bar with both hands, and a sharp rise of the chest and shoulders. This starts the body and bar back up again by counteracting the downward movement of the weight. If you have not kept tight you will have flexed a small amount and this action somewhat nullifies this tendency. Try to wiggle your toes at the bottom, if you are unable to do so then you are already tipping forward. Flexing leaves you in a negative part of the power curve to get back up as it turns the early part of the lift into a good morning exercise and not a squat. You will unconsciously realize this just as your spotters consciously see it when your buttocks rise before your head and chest start coming back up. This is a Dangerous Situation that must be controlled immediately or a severe injury is looming around the bend.

Getting back up
Now that the weight is moving back up again, it is time to push harder and accelerate the bar. Keep the weight centered on your shoulders and back as you push upward. Maintain total control of the bar at all times during the lift.

Replacing the bar into the rack
As you approach the end of your set the spotters should be closing in to assist the re-rack process. Make certain you are in the 'J' hooks before releasing your grip. Each of your spotters will, or should, be paying attention to this placement and should have their hands on the bar helping to guide it back into place on the pins. The squat done correctly is truly poetry in motion and a beautiful thing to see. So start 'squattin'.

Article Reference
This article, written by Danny O'Dell, appeared in Issue 21 of the Successful Coaching Newsletter.

How Much Strength Is Enough?

How Much Strength Is Enough?
By Ed McNeely.
From Junior National Strength Training Program.pdf
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The majority of rowers use some form of resistance training in their preparation for the rowing season. While strength is obviously very important for a competitive rower how strong does a rower have to be? Does is really make any difference in rowing performance if you increase the weight you can squat from 500 lbs. to 550 lbs.?

Every sport requires a certain level of strength to achieve optimal performance. Increasing strength beyond these levels does not necessarily improve performance and in some instances can be detrimental to performance. Once the ideal level of strength has been achieved the time needed to increase beyond this point could be better spent training something else i.e. rowing technique, aerobic fitness, flexibility, or anaerobic fitness.

How Much Strength do Rowers Need?
There are several ways to determine the strength demands of a sport. A biomechanical analysis of the forces generated on the foot stretchers, oar lock, or at the blade can provide good information on how much force is developed with each stroke. Elite rowers generate their highest forces on the first stroke of a race. These forces have been found to reach 1352 N, which is roughly equal to 135 kg, for men and 1019 N or 102 kg for women. Back in 1975, research on the East German National team indicated that the minimum level of rowing strength required for international competition was 133 kg. With the increases in boat speed and changes in oar technology this is undoubtedly higher today.

A second method for determining strength goals is to base them on the strength levels of elite competitors. Presumably, if a competitor is medalling at the Olympics or World Championships they are strong enough to be successful. This doesn’t hold true all the time because of differences in technical efficiency and aerobic fitness but it is a good starting point. In order to study maximal force generation at the catch Secher developed an isometric apparatus that was adjustable so as to suit individual rowing positions. Using Dutch Olympic, national, and club level rowers it was found that international rowers on average generated 204 kg of force. National level rowers generated 183 kg of force and club rowers generated 162 kg of force. Using other non-specific rowing tests – isometric arm pull, back extension, trunk flexion and leg extension – on the same groups of athletes, it was found that the higher the competition level of the rower the greater the strength in all tests. The use of non rowing tests of strength has it's pros and cons. Force application in a boat is technically different than it is in a leg press or squat. While these tests are very good for determining if the muscles are strong enough to do the job they don't necessarily reflect someone's boat moving ability. Weight lifting tests do have the advantage of being low tech, they don't require computer links to strain gauges or force plates, and easy to administer. Concept II has developed a machine called the Dyno which works on the same air resistance principals as the erg but can be used for strength training and testing. This is a very well made machine and in time will probably become a standard tool for strength testing for rowers. Unfortunately, because it has only been on the market for a couple of years I can't provide any strength norms for it yet.

Strength and Body Weight
Strength can be classified as either absolute or relative. Absolute strength represents the maximum amount of weight that can be lifted one time. Larger people tend to have higher absolute strength than smaller people because they carry more muscle mass. Relative strength is the maximum amount of weight that can be lifted one time in relation to bodyweight. Relative strength is of more importance to a rower than absolute strength. The amount of weight in a boat affects the drag through the water. Increasing absolute strength is of no benefit if the weight gain offsets the strength gain by increase resistance through the water. Increasing relative strength makes it easier to accelerate the boat with each stroke because strength has increased without increasing the drag. It is because of the importance of relative strength that the strength goals presented here are expressed as percentages of bodyweight.

Strength Goals
The table of goals above have been developed from the data I have collected during my consultation with rowers from novice high school rowers to Olympic Champions as well as from an examination of the force and strength research that has been done. Because the goals are expressed as multiples of body weight they are applicable to both heavyweight and lightweight rowers.

Using the Tables
To use the table take your body weight and multiply it by the appropriate factor. For instance if you were a 200 lb. Male club rower you should be able to bench pull 210 lbs. one time (200 lb. Bodyweight x 1.05 = 210). These tables are appropriate for rowers aged 15-35. Strength normally decreases after age 35 and those under 15 should be focusing on technique and body stability instead of maximum strength. In a future article I will provide tables for rowers over age 35. If you currently are able to meet these goals you can focus your training on other areas. If you can’t meet these goals strength may be one of the things holding back your performance.

Mumbers are in the following order: Squat, Deadlift, Bench Pull
Men
High School 1.0, 1.0, 0.7
U23 1.3, 1.3, 0.9,
Club 1.4, 1.4, 1.05
National 1.7, 1.7, 1.2
Olympic 1.9, 1.9, 1.3

Women
High School 0.8, 0.8, 0.6
U23 1.0, 1.0, 0.8
Club 1.25, 1.25, 0.95
National 1.4, 1.4, 1.1
Olympic 1.6, 1.6, 1.2

Here are some pointers to help you reach your goals:

1. Take a Long Term Approach to Strength Development
Don’t try to achieve these goals overnight. It may take several years for you to reach the strength goal at each competitive level. Notice how the strength level of Olympic rowers is twice that of the high school rower. The average age of Olympic rowers is 26-28 years old. This gives the high school rower about 10 years to double their strength. Rapid increases in strength are possible but won’t likely be maintained from year to year.

2. Keep Everything in Perspective
Just because you haven’t achieved the strength goals that I have outlined there is no reason to panic and wildly change your program. Decreasing the amount of aerobic training or technical training so that you can spend more time in the weight room may help you reach your strength goal but it may not make you a better rower. Look at all aspects of your performance before changing your program. Aerobic and technical training are far more important than strength is to your performance. If you feel that you are technically proficient and aerobically very fit then maybe you can decrease the time you spend on these things until your strength level improves. Otherwise work on the other things first.

3. Don’t Over Do it
Keep strength training sessions short. Sessions that last longer than 45-60 minutes often lead to overtraining. Shorter more frequent training sessions cause greater strength increases than long infrequent sessions. Try to fit in 3-5, 45 minute sessions each week.

4. Focus on Strength not Strength Endurance
Until you have adequate strength, strength endurance training should be eliminated from the program. Strength increases do not occur with the high repetition, low resistance training common in strength endurance programs. Strength endurance training without adequate strength only means you are getting better at being weak.

Practice Like A Girl, Compete Like A Boy

Practice Like A Girl, Compete Like A Boy – Training the Total Athlete
By Kathleen J. DeBoer.
From www.usolympicteam.com/coaching
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I’d rather coach women in practice settings any day, but if we are talking about coaching in competition, I’d prefer coaching men.” I have heard this statement or a variation of it from many coaches who have worked with both female and male teams in a wide variety of sports. This pattern in references for different genders in different situations, while not universal, is certainly common enough that it cannot be attributed to isolated coaching idiosyncrasies.

When I question those making the statements, the responses are again very similar. The preference for females in practice settings stems from the observations by these coaches that the female athletes listen better, are more interested in learning technique and in knowing specifically what their role is in different situations. Since most coaches find the details of technique and strategy fascinating, the attention of their athletes to these areas is naturally affirming. The stated preference for males in competitive situations is that male athletes can block out extraneous concerns and “just play,” that they take initiative in making things happen, and that the goal of winning is never questioned and always shared, if not always accomplished. For coaches, who are universally competitive people, these responses in contests are viewed as natural and normal, and any other response perplexing, if not utterly incomprehensible.

So what causes these differences? Do our athletes come to the gym with the predisposed characteristics to battle or to bond already hard wired into them? Or, are we training them to respond differently to practice and competition? I believe the answer is a combination of both factors. One way to unpack the issue of predisposition is to look at how athletes choose to behave when they are not being lead or coached. A friend of mine has taught eighth-graders how to play volleyball in co-ed physical education classes for over twenty-five years. He describes these patterns of behavior
when the students enter the gym. The first boy who comes into the gym grabs a volleyball off the rack and either shoots baskets with it or tosses it up and hits it against the wall.

The first girl who enters the gym sits down on a bleacher to wait for her friends. The next boy who enters the gym generally engages with the first boy. They start playing short court over the volleyball net or engage in a game of one-on-one at the basketball goal. The second girl who enters the gym may get a ball off the rack and sit down next to the first girl or she may sit down in a different place on the bleachers. As more boys enter the gym, the games they are playing either expand or multiply. After a number of girls are in the gym they will get in a circle and pass and set the ball around the circle, laughing and talking as they exchange the ball.

This differentiation is not universal, meaning there are girls that will display the characteristics typical for boys and boys who sit rather than engage, but they are the rare exceptions. The teacher reported to me that this pattern of gendered behavior has not changed for the twenty-five years he has been teaching volleyball to his classes. When choosing unsupervised interaction, the males choose competitive play, the females choose cooperative play. What happens when athletes are being coached? The 1990 Olympic Sports Festival was held in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. The eight men’s and women ’s volleyball teams trained at Carmichael Gymnasium and an auxiliary facility. Bill Neville, a veteran coach with broad experience working with both males and females at both the elite and beginning levels, was the head of the volleyball delegation. In that role he spent considerable time observing the practices of the various coaching staffs. He made the following generalization about the training: the women’s teams, regardless of the gender of the coaching staff, spent a lot more time on technique and positioning drills than the men’s team; the men’s teams spent a lot more time in competitive, game-like drills than the women’s teams. I tucked the comment away for further reflection and observation because I was curious as to whether this tendency was peculiar to volleyball or held true across various team sports. When I returned to my college administrative post, I watched a variety of teams in practices to evaluate Neville’s hypothesis. The pattern he had observed in the volleyball practices held true for our basketball teams, our baseball/softball teams, and our soccer teams. Like the volleyball team practices, the women’s teams spent more time drilling on positioning, and repetitive technique-oriented sequences; the men’s teams spent more time in head-to-head, competitive, results- oriented sequences.
Since most of those coaching at the collegiate level had spent all of their time coaching either men or women, the coaches were unaware that this difference in training methods was so prevalent. At our institution only men coached the men’s teams but both men and women were in head and assistant positions with the women’s teams. As with the Olympic Sports Festival, only the gender of the athletes had an impact on the nature of the practice activities, not the gender of the coach.

When I asked our coaches to reflect on the difference, the most common speculation was that the female athletes did not have the same physical skills in terms of movement,
jumping ability and power as the male athletes, and, therefore, good technique was more critical to their success in playing the game. Shortly after these conversations I went to watch a friend coach his son’s six-year-old basketball team. When we entered the gym the boys were engaged in a variety of activities, some competing with each other by shooting long shots from outside the three point line, others playing H O R S E, still others trying to dribble without having another child steal the ball. The coach started the organized part of the practice with a few dribbling drills. The boys engaged in these exercises so lackadaisically that the coach stopped the drill and scolded them harshly, pointing out that dribbling was an essential skill to playing the game and they should pay attention to their method.

Next he introduced a shooting drill. My friend began by explaining to his charges how to hold the ball in their hands, where to position it in relation to their bodies and how their hands should look on follow-through. During this explanation the boys fiddled and nudged each other, rarely looking at the coach. As soon as he gave them the go-ahead to practice this technique, they ran to the baskets and immediately started playing a game to see who could make the most baskets in the shortest period of time. Shortly thereafter, about fifteen minutes into the sixty minute workout, the coach divided the boys into teams for competitive drills, scrimmaging first in three-on-two fast break situations and progressing to five-on-five drills. These six-year-olds had no skills or movement abilities whatsoever, yet they spent most of their practice time in competitive, game-like progressions.

My next opportunity for observation was at the Women’s Volleyball World Championships in Sao Paolo, Brazil, when I accompanied our national team as an advisor. Our practice times frequently overlapped with those of the other women’s teams. During the course of the two weeks I watched the silver medalist Brazilian team and several of the Asian teams in training sessions. These were the best women’s volleyball teams in the world, full of elite athletes with 15-20 years of high-level training and competition. They were, for the most part, above average jumpers with great body control and movement skills. Their practices, however, were amazingly technique oriented. They worked for long periods of time on footwork drills for blocking and transitioning from defense to offense. They spend considerable time on serving and passing drills. Only occasionally, for a few minutes at the end of a training session, did I observe anything that resembled a scrimmage or competitive exchange. These back-to-back observations of a beginning boy’s team engaged mostly in game-like activity and elite level women’s teams engaged mainly in technique training made me question the rationalizing lore I had been given by my peers as to the reasons for the gender differences in training regiments. The truth is that we as coaches are training our teams to their strengths because they are more cooperative and easy to deal with when engaged in activities in which they are comfortable. By our methods we reinforce what they already do well—teach females cooperative play, teach males competitive play. What we must realize, however, is that by our focus on technique, positioning and tactics we short-change our female athletes. We don’t subject them regularly to the uncomfortable stresses of competition. In the same vein, by our focus on battle, rivalry and proving oneself in training males, we leave them under-prepared also. They don’t get exposed to the difficult discipline needed to learn stress-proof technique or the repetition necessary to refine integrated tactics. To make a female team more competitive, we must practice competing. We must accept that the “me versus you” nature of a contest can be difficult for those who choose cooperative play when left to their own devices. For females, then, competitiveness must be taught and rehearsed. On the other hand, the male worldview grounded in proving ones self in opposition to others does not lend itself to the restraint of repetitive drilling. For males, then, the discipline to train, to learn proper technique must be taught and rehearsed. Each of you at this point can cite examples of elite athletes in your sport who are exceptions to these stereotypes— athletes who are both rigidly disciplined and insanely competitive. Yet I venture you could make a much longer list of those who didn’t quite make it because they were accomplished in only one half of the equation.

The unanswered question for coaches is: how much competing do you put into your training if you are coaching women, or how much drilling do you demand if you are coaching men? It’s a tricky question. Each coach must evaluate the capacity for anxiety-producing activity among his or her athletes. My observation is that the younger the athletes the lower their tolerance for unpleasant experiences. Their primary motivation for engaging in the sport is to “have fun.” More mature athletes realize that periods of stress in training are part of the process in pursuing athletic excellence.

I’ve also seen that, in most cases, a major jump shift from current practice does not work. Radical shifts make athletes edgy and confused about the goals of training. They quickly lose the sense of enjoyment they get from participation. The coaches of female teams who have the most success with teaching competitiveness are verbal and straightforward about what they are doing and why. Instead of assuming their athletes know how to compete, they make the practice of competing a regular, disciplined, and evaluated part of a workout. They also verbally deconstruct the inevitable conflicts that result from forcing their athletes into the uncomfortable situation of battling against each other. They accept the strife as part of the learning process. Finally and very importantly, they are attuned to the level of anxiety on their team so they can quickly revert to calming, process-oriented drills when necessary. Those who failed at teaching competitiveness plunged their teams into a mano-a-mano struggle without explanation or debriefing. The resultant fretfulness and disruption of team chemistry is generally disastrous to relationships among the players themselves and with the coach. The feminine ability to put emotions into words and the penchant to problem-solve verbally makes authentic communication between coach and athletes, and among the athletes themselves a prerequisite for success in training a female team to compete. Basketball’s Rick Pitino is the coach I have observed who had the most success with training males in repetitive, technique-specific, non-competitive sequences. He did this by separating his technical training from his team training. His morning sessions were individual—one or two athletes at a time, short—20 minutes, and frequent— four times per week. The focus was completely on technique—shooting the three, cross over dribble, stutter step and accelerate, head/ball fake and shoot, free throws, etc. The athlete was corrected each time he performed a technique incorrectly regardless of the result of his efforts.

I observed a session one day in which a player missed 90% of his shots. The coach running the drill stood where he could only see the player’s form, not whether he made the basket or not. His comments were directed at the prescribed shooting form, which was correct most of the time. The coach said nothing about the misses. The sessions were also at game speed and very efficient. The athlete was breathing hard, yet aerobically, most of the time and, depending on his position, took between 250 and 400 shots per session. The main reason for the success of this training regiment is the individual nature of the sessions. The athlete was working only to satisfy the coach and the soul focus of the coach was the technical accuracy of a particular movement. The absence of rivalry and very clear feedback patterns allowed for concentration on method rather than outcome. Unlike the successful female practices, there was no conversation and no explanation.

The mundanity of the individual training was numbing, even to me as a casual and occasional observer. But the effectiveness is also clear. Pitino’s players are known at the professional level for their excellent fundamentals and healthy self-confidence in their abilities. Their technical efficiency has also been said to mask physical limitations allowing them a couple of years or a season as a professional that they might not otherwise have had. Training complete athletes will not happen automatically. It takes purposeful attention by the coach to the part of successful competing that is difficult for them. Females must be taught, through frequent repetition, how to benefit from and be comfortable with head to head competition. Males must be taught, through daily rehearsal, how to benefit from and be comfortable with repetitive sequences focused on technique and tactics.

Without knowledge of each gender’s predispositions, coaches easily gravitate toward a training regiment that reinforces that gender’s strengths. The results are frustrated coaches and semi-prepared athletes. Just as we take responsibility for all other aspects of training, coaches must be accountable for teaching their athletes either the competitive fire (female) or the technical discipline (male) that is essential for athletic success.

Kathleen DeBoer is the author of the book “Gender and Competition: How Men and Women Approach Work and Play Differently” and is currently serving as the Executive Director of the American Volleyball Coaches Association.

So You Want To Be Great “Big Event” Coach

Better Coaching - So You Want To Be Great “Big Event” Coach: Three Things That Can Make or Break You
By Sean McCann, Ph.D., USOC Sport Psychology Department.
From www.usolympicteam.com/coaching
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Like athletes, some coaches thrive in high pressure situations and others fare poorly. The Olympic Winter Games in Salt Lake City were my fifth Olympic Games, and by closely observing coaches at the Games, I have noticed certain behavior patterns that exist in the coaches who excel under pressure. For simplicity’s sake, I organized these behaviors into three key skill areas:

§ self-knowledge,
§ having a coaching-stress-thermostat, and
§ building strong relationships with athletes.

I am regularly surprised by generally, successful coaches who have large “blind spots” or are unaware of issues that others recognize. Often, coaches are in the dark about the blind spots until something goes wrong at a big event. In preparing for big events, I suggest gaining self-knowledge in two areas, being able to define coaching excellence at big events and getting feedback on your strengths and weaknesses shown under stress.
SELF KNOWLEDGE
Define Coaching Excellence
In an Olympic Coach article (Spring 1997, “How Do You Know You Have Done a Good Coaching Job),” I wrote about how difficult it was for Olympic coaches to evaluate their own coaching performance separately from the medal performance of their athletes. Forcing yourself to write a checklist of “behaviors of excellent big-event coaches” before the event can help increase self-knowledge. By rating your skills in each of these behaviors (e.g., daily organization, flexibility under pressure, optimism, ability to delegate, etc.), you have clues about your potential blind spots at big events. Of course, success at big events is related to excellence, but it isn’t the same thing. As Joe Paterno said, “Success is perishable and often outside our control. In contrast, excellence is something that’s lasting, dependable, and largely within a person’s control. ” If you strive for big event coaching excellence, success is likely to come.

Learn Your Stress Personality through Feedback
One of the most useful, and difficult, things a coach can do is receive honest feedback from the people around him/her. For big event coaching, it is useful to know how those around you see your strengths and weaknesses when you’re feeling criticized, angry, nervous or depressed. These four conditions are regular visitors to coaches at big events. Knowing how athletes and other staff perceive you during those moments can help you develop a strong plan using your strengths and compensating for your weaknesses. Unfortunately, research has shown that the higher your position in an organization, the less likely you are to receive honest feedback. You need to have at least one person in your coaching environment who isn’t afraid to tell you the truth. Do you have such a person?

A THERMOSTAT FOR COACHING SUCCESS
Like a thermostat that releases coolant to an engine in danger of overheating, it is important for coaches to have mechanisms to handle the increased stress of big events. Coaches who lack these mechanisms tend to get in “survival mode” during big competitions, and those just “trying to make it through” a major event do not excel at coaching. There are four key strategies to building your own stress-thermostat:

1. Controlling anxiety
People vary greatly in how nervous they get during competition. Nervousness is not a problem unless it interferes with your ability to coach your best. Unfortunately, I have witnessed numerous examples of a nervous coach coaching poorly at important events. This can happen by
§ making other staff nervous,
§ worrying endlessly, about spreading nervousness to athletes,
§ by over-coaching (saying too much),
§ under-coaching (saying too little),
§ focusing on not making mistakes instead of taking advantage of possible opportunities,
§ becoming rigid, tense and/or irritable, and
§ draining the fun from everyone around you.

If one or more of these symptoms happened to you at smaller events, they are more likely to occur at bigger events.

To battle coaching anxiety, you must be good at controlling thoughts, feelings, and your physical state. Identify the thoughts and feelings that calm you down, then develop the ability to call-up those thoughts and feelings when nervous. For example, one successful coach thinks of his family for 30 seconds before he gives a speech to his team. This allows him to believe his message of having fun, staying relaxed and being aggressive. In addition to thoughts and feelings, develop breathing and relaxation techniques to quickly lower your heart rate and slow breathing helps prevent your coaching body from undermining your coaching mind.

2. Stress-management strategy.
Successful coaches have some way to reduce overall stress. For most coaches, the most successful way is exercise, although some read, listen to music, write letters and play video games. Whatever strategy you use, the key is to continue the strategy during big events! Too many coaches give up a stress management strategy during the Olympic Games because they “just don’t have time.” If managing stress makes you a better coach, you can’t afford to stop managing stress in the big events where the most stress occurs.

3. Compartmentalizing.
A number of issues can interfere with your ability to focus on the present. They may include; unfinished business, questions about schedule changes, unexpected technical challenges, anger over stupid decisions, challenges in your personal life, and a variety of other issues. To have an effective meeting with an athlete during a big event, you must learn to compartmentalize (set aside those thoughts and focus on the here and now). Compartmentalizing is a key skill to master. Without it you may lose the ability to solve problems quickly and the ability to connect emotionally to the people around you. Simple techniques can help you develop the ability to compartmentalize. A strategy used by some coaches is to identify a physical place which becomes the last point where extraneous thoughts are allowed to enter your head. For example, a coach who always drives a car to competitions literally opens a glove compartment, takes a breath, drops in all extra unhelpful thoughts, closes the glove compartment and leaves those issues for after the competition. Another coach uses a two sentence verbal checklist before talking to individual athletes on competition day. Before approaching the athlete, he says, “Where am I? I’m right here, right now.” With this exercise, he assures all other thoughts are cleared from his mind so that he can attentively listen to the athlete.

4. Impulse control.
The powerful emotions that hit you at big competitions are one of the things that make coaching at big events so much fun. On the other hand, strong emotions sometimes overwhelm coaches. While anger and frustration may be real and appropriate responses to a bad call that could cost your athlete(s) a medal, effective big event coaches learn to control the impulse to vent anger during the competition. Impulsive shouting, swearing or physical display of your feelings sends a negative message to other coaches and your athletes. At a recent Olympic Games, an athlete told me that an angry outburst by her coach made her feel that the coach didn’t believe she could win in her next event. In fact, the coach was angry, but not at the athlete’s performance. The outburst sent her a message that caused her to assume he was angry about her performance. For a coach at a big event, finding a safe place to express feelings is one thing, but losing control is not acceptable. With everyone under stress, losing control is risky.

BUILDING STRONG RELATIONSHIPS WITH ATHLETES
The best coaches understand their athletes. Period. When coaching at big events, your athlete may surprise you by showing something you haven’t seen from them before. A coach told me after a devastating and surprising failure at the Olympic Games, “I didn’t think I had to talk to him about managing pressure. He is a World Champion! Of course, in hindsight, he had lots more pressure and expectations here. I worried about some of the others, but not him. I should have talked to him.” Understanding your athletes and developing effective communication is the heart of effective coaching. Big event coaching is no different except the consequences of not knowing your athletes are bigger! Key items to remember about knowing and understanding your athletes include:

Don’t overlook emotions . Feelings are often more important than thoughts at big events. People react differently to stress, and athletes may be on a completely different page than you. Know the early warning signals for confidence problems, nervousness, and over-arousal. One coach told me after the fact, “I saw her nodding and smiling, but I could tell she was so fired up that she wasn’t listening at all.” Taking five extra minutes with this athlete to calm and remind her of how simple the job was made all the difference for this Olympic medal winner. Develop good questions. Getting in the habit of asking, rather than telling, pays dividends at big events. Rather than guessing how athletes are doing, asking the right questions can help develop self -knowledge, self-control and selfconfidence. Among the best questions you can ask are those that remind athletes how they got where they are. For example, asking what they did to make training go so well the day before is a great way to talk to athletes before a big event. Remember, it is always a good idea at big events to focus on what to do, not what if. One of my favorite exercises to use with a nervous athlete at a big event is made up of four questions:

§ What is your job? Sample answer, “wrestle well tomorrow.”
§ How do you do that? Sample answer, “Attack the first minute, then go harder.”
§ Can you do that? Sample answer, “Yes! I’m in amazing shape.”
§ Will you do that? Sample answer, “Yes!”

Asking questions can become a routine that allows you to quickly understand what your athletes are thinking. Additionally, it lets athletes find their own solutions rather than simply agreeing with your solution. If athletes can’t say it, they aren’t likely to believe it!

Develop trust so athletes can express weaknesses. Guess how many athletes like to tell their coaches that they are afraid? Exactly, none do. Guess how many coaches want terrified athletes to keep it to themselves at a big event? Okay, maybe some would! But you cannot solve a problem if you don’t know it exists. Athletes need to be able to tell you when they need your help, and when their own skills are over -matched by the situation. A dangerous myth athletes hold is that mental toughness means ignoring dangerous and distracting thoughts, anxiety, and self -doubt. Many athletes believe that talking about fear makes it real, while trying to push unwanted thoughts and feelings away equals mental toughness. Unless they have a strategy for controlling their thoughts and fears, however, this approach is doomed to fail at big events, where the demons are so much bigger! This problem increases significantly if athletes are afraid to admit weaknesses to their coach. Treating nervousness and self-doubt as being normal at big events allows you to discuss and solve these challenges with the athletes. On the other hand, if mentioning these things is taboo, you won’t know until you see them arrive in the form of defensive and tentative behaviors during competition.

Know the difference between “good quiet” and “bad quiet.” You must know how your athletes look when they are ready to perform versus when they are trying to look as if they are ready to perform. Knowing the difference is the key to big event coaching, because knowing means that you know when to brake, steer and get out of the way. Of course, it isn’t just quiet athletes you need to be able to read. You also need to know what it means when an athlete laughs with others, does jumping jacks, talks on the cell phone or prays. You must know their normal competition routines and ones you are seeing for the first time. Big events often bring new behavior, and you must determine if it is good or bad. The best way to determine good from bad is to compare with past behavior, which is always the best predictor of future behavior. Behavior seen for the first time at an Olympic Games isn’t necessarily a bad thing, but it isn’t always good either. If you and the athlete communicate well, it is rarely a problem to ask an athlete how they are doing, especially if that is your normal routine. Like athletes, you should always question why you are doing something for the first time at a big event.

The extra adrenaline that comes with big events like the Olympic Games and World Championships are like an ocean wave coming at you. If you have the three key areas figured out (self-awareness, coaching stress-thermostat and strong athlete relationships), you can catch that wave like a surfer and have a great and successful ride. If you don’t, well, it’s like a wave coming at you.

Parents & Sport

What every parent should remember about sport
By Fitzsimons, P. (05/06/1997). Sydney Morning Herald
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THERE IS madness in the air. On one field, schoolboys are going at each other like drunken sailors in a Marseilles dockyard brawl; on another, parents and spectators are beating to a bloody pulp a linesman with whom they disagree; on thousands of scattered fields, lesser atrocities are happening all the time.

Clearly, somewhere or other, we've lost the plot, or the plot's lost us, or some damn thing, but the times are out of joint when the whole sense of "the game for the game's sake" has died like a dog in the street.

With that in mind, I re-offer here a Code for Children's Sport I came across long ago, which was developed in New Zealand by the Wellington Rugby Union to provide much-needed compass points to prevent people becoming lost in the youthful sporting jungle. It has been so successful in changing the culture in which the game is played there, that it has since been translated and duplicated around the world in adapted forms.

Having taken the liberty of rejigging it for all sports, it looks like this:
PARENTS' CODE
-Do not force an unwilling child to participate in sport.
-Remember, children are involved in sport for their enjoyment, not yours.
-Encourage your child always to play by the rules.
-Teach your child that honest effort is as important as victory so that the result of each game is accepted without undue disappointment. Never ridicule or yell at your child for making a mistake and losing a game.
-Applaud good play by your team and by members of the opposing team. Do not publicly question the referee or umpire's judgment and NEVER his/her honesty.
-Support all efforts to remove verbal and physical abuse from children's sport.
-Recognize the value and importance of volunteer coaches. They give up their time and resources to provide recreational activities for your child.

So far so good? My guess is that if you haven't been involved in children's sport, you're finding it a bit trite - whereas if you have, you already have a particular parent in mind whose nose you'd like to jam it up. Actually, make that: whose pocket you'd like to slip it into.

COACHES' CODE
-Be reasonable in your demands on the players' time, energy, and enthusiasm. Remember they have other interests.
-Teach your players that the rules of the game are mutual agreements that no one should evade or break.
-Avoid over-playing the talented players. The "just average" players need and deserve equal time.
-Remember children play for fun and enjoyment and that winning is only part of it. Never ridicule or yell at the children for making mistakes or losing a game.
-The scheduling and length of practice times and games should take into consideration the maturity level of the children.
-Develop team respect for the ability of the opponents, as well as for the judgment of referees and opposing coaches.
-Always follow the advice of a doctor in determining when an injured player is ready to play again.

All you demons got that?
Now to the players. A first bit of advice has to be: forget all the really serious stuff you often see on TV - there'll be plenty of time for that when you get older. The following code may not be the way we adults always behave, but it's at least the way most of us started out.

PLAYERS' CODE
-Play for the fun of it, not just to please your parents or coach.
-Play by the rules, and never argue with the referee's decisions. Let your captain or coach ask any necessary questions.
-Control your temper. No mouthing off.
-Treat all players as you would like to be treated. Don't interfere with, bully, or take unfair advantage of any players.
-Remember that the goals of the game are to have fun, improve your skills, and feel good. Don't be a show-off or always try to get the most points.
-Co-operate with your coach, teammates, and opponents, for without them you don't have a game.
-All up, cherish childhood and teenage sport for what it is - fun. No more, no less. If they're telling you any different, the problem is theirs, not yours.
-And stop belting other blokes. I know it seems like a good idea at the time, but it looks very ordinary on the evening news.

Trust me, I know.

Fuel For Rowing

Fuel For Rowing
By The Department of Sports Nutrition AIS
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Characteristics of the Sport
Rowing events are held over 2000 metres and typically take 5.5 to 7 minutes depending on the crew. Crews are distinguished by the number of members in the boat (singles, doubles, fours, eights), whether there is a coxswain steering, and whether the boat is sculled (two oars per person) or rowed (one oar each). Rowing involves lightweight and heavyweight competition. In the lightweight division, male athletes are not permitted to exceed 72.5kg with a crew average of 70kg. For females, the maximum individual weight is 59kg with a crew average of 57kg. Rowing places great demands on both the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems and requires great power and strength.

Training
Rowing requires a unique mix of technique, power and endurance of both the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. This requires long hours of intense training even though events only last 5-7 minutes. Elite rowers train 8-10 months of the year. A typical rowing session covers 20 km with 1-2 sessions being held on the water each day. In addition, rowers undertake gym sessions 3-4 times per week to develop strength and muscular endurance. Some rowers may also include additional aerobic sessions such as cycling or running.

Competition
Regattas may last from two days to a week. Competitors must progress through heats and semi-finals to earn a berth in the finals. Competitors who fail to qualify for semifinals directly from the heats contest a repechage to earn a place in the semi-final. At the major regattas rowers will generally only contest one event per day with the regatta lasting roughly one week. In Club regattas rowers may race up to three times in one day. Light training is undertaken on any rest days. Lightweight rowers must weigh-in two hours prior to their event but do not have to weigh in again if they are racing in multiple events in one day.

Physical Characteristics
Heavyweight rowers are tall and heavy with strong muscles and long limbs. While muscle mass should account for a large proportion of body mass, absolute mass is important therefore body fat levels are often relatively high. Lightweight rowers aim to keep body fat levels low to maintain a good power-to-weight ratio.

Common Nutrition Issues
Training Nutrition
Rowers have very high energy and carbohydrate requirements to support training loads and meet body weight and strength goals. All rowers need to work hard to recover between training sessions. A high-energy, high-carbohydrate, nutrient-dense diet is required. Some rowers (particularly male heavyweights) struggle with the shear volume of food they need to consume. Frequent snacks and use of compact, energy dense foods or drinks such as juice, flavoured milk, jam, honey, bars and liquid meals are necessary to keep the volume of food manageable. Rowers need to pay particular attention to recovery after training and organise themselves to have high-carbohydrate snacks on hand immediately after training sessions are completed.

Matters of Physique
It is an advantage to be heavy and strong in heavyweight rowing. As body weight is supported in the boat, higher body fat levels are not as great a disadvantage as they are in other weight bearing sports. However, at times, it may be necessary for heavyweight rowers to trim their skinfolds. In lightweight rowing the need to maintain low body fat levels becomes more important. Rowers needing to reduce skinfolds must target excess kilojoules in the diet. In particular, excess fat, alcohol and sugary foods should be targeted and replaced with more nutrient-dense choices.

Iron Status
Rowers can be at risk of poor iron status. In particular, females and adolescent males can struggle to meet their iron needs. Regular checks of iron status are recommended. Rowers should include sources of iron such as lean red meat, chicken, fortified cereals, wholegrain cereals, legumes and green vegetables in the diet on a regular basis. Advice from a sports dietitian should be sought if low iron status develops.

Fluid Needs
Long training sessions on the water lead to significant sweat losses, particularly when undertaken twice a day. The table below shows sweat losses and fluid intakes recorded on AIS rowers in different environmental conditions. Despite having drink bottles available, athletes failed to consume enough fluid to keep up with their sweat losses, particularly in hot weather. Note, even in cold weather, considerable sweat losses were seen.

Rowers should establish their individual fluid losses by weighing before and after training sessions. Each kilogram of weight lost is the equivalent to 1 litre of fluid. Adding the weight of any fluid or food consumed during the session to the weight change over the session provides an estimate of total fluid loss for the workout. However, to fully rehydrate a rower usually has to consume 150% of the remaining fluid deficit, over the next few hours, to regain fluid balance. For example, if a rower finishes a session 2 kg lighter and consumes 0.5 litre during the session, total sweat loss over the session is approximately 2.5 litres. Once individual requirements are known, a plan can be developed to allow rowers to meet fluid requirements in subsequent sessions. However, now that a deficit of 2 litres has occurred, the rower will need to drink approximately 3 litres during the next hours to compensate for continued urine and sweat losses until fluid balance is regained.

The following tips will assist with hydration:
Drink with all meals and snacks before a training session. Consume 300-400ml of fluid in the hour before training commences to ensure you begin each session hydrated.
Take sufficient drink bottles to training. Keep some in the coach's boat for topups.
Take a few seconds every 15-20 minutes or between pieces for a drink break.

Alternatively, try using a drink container like a hydration-pack, which is worn on
the back, to avoid having to take your hands off the oar to drink.

Rehydrate fully after the session.
Sports drinks are the recommended fluid choice during rowing.
Lightweight rowers should not consider a lower weight at the end of a workout to be a good sign. Even though dehydration is an inevitable part of making weight for competition, it is unnecessary and counterproductive in the training setting. Aim to train as well as possible at all sessions by staying as well hydrated as possible.

Competition Nutrition
Rowers should go into each race with fluid and fuel stores topped up, and feeling comfortable after the last meal. With the regatta or competition lasting a number of days, the challenge is to recover between each day's sessions and to prepare for the next race. Generally a meal that provides carbohydrate should be consumed 2-3 hours before a race. Suitable foods include breakfast cereal, toast, muffins, sandwiches, yoghurt, fruit, pasta with tomato sauce and creamed rice. Some rowers need to take special care with pre-race eating - it can be very uncomfortable to race with a full stomach. Low bulk choices such as liquid meals and sports bars can be useful in these situations.

With much of the day tied up in preparation and the race itself, there is usually little opportunity for rowers to meet their usual high-energy intake. Consequently, some rowers find that they quickly lose weight over the course of a competition. Rowers need to organise themselves to have nutritious food supplies at their fingertips at all times. Take along a supply of cereal bars, liquid meal supplements, sports bars, fruit bars, dried fruit, sandwiches, yoghurt, juice etc. Commence your recovery as soon as possible after each race by consuming some of these snack foods. Don't neglect fluid needs. You can be dehydrated from your rowing efforts, making-weight practices, or just from sitting in the sun watching the competition. Carbohydrate-containing fluids such as sports drinks are useful for topping up both fluid and carbohydrate stores.

Case Study
Terry was living in a university college and rowing with the university coxed fours. A training load of ten water sessions and three weight sessions each week meant Terry's energy requirements were enormous. Terry was careful to eat a high-carbohydrate diet to refuel but was struggling to maintain weight and was becoming tired. A consult with a sports dietitian revealed Terry had a good knowledge of carbohydrate-based foods and was focusing on these at meals, however he simply wasn't eating enough. Terry was only eating three times a day because he was limited to dining hall opening hours. He was trying to consume huge meals but was finding he physically couldn't stomach all the food he required.

The solution for Terry was to improve his access to food and eat more frequently rather than trying to consume huge amounts of food in one sitting. A pattern of six or seven meals and snacks per day in addition to high-energy drinks was required. First Terry discussed his problems with the chef at the university dining hall. Terry negotiated for the chef to provide Terry with a supply of snack foods such as cereal bars, canned fruit, breakfast cereal and milk. Sometimes these were eaten straight off the water, as Terry travelled back to university. An immediate snack followed up by a more substantial meal an hour later was a practical approach that worked on many days. Terry also started ordering a takeaway lunch pack with sandwiches, buns and fruit. In all, this meant Terry had a regular supply of foods available for pre-training and recovery snacks. The chef also agreed to keep an evening meal waiting on nights when Terry finished training late.

Terry invested in a milkshake maker and bought a supply of liquid meal supplements and sports drinks. Using the sports drinks during training was an easy way to increase Terry's carbohydrate intake. He was also able to make milkshakes or fruit smoothies in his room at night or early mornings. With time, Terry was able to regain his lost weight. By varying his snacks and drinks he avoided becoming bored with his meals and was able to maintain his increased body weight.

Dealing With Angry Parents

Dealing With the Angry Sports Parent
By Tim Kotzur, Barker College, Sydney
(This is a shorter version of the article which first appeared in Sports Coach vol 24 no 1, 2001)
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Virtually all coaches at some stage of their career have to deal with complaints from an angry parent. The reasons for the complaint are many and varied, and it makes no difference whether the complaint is real or imagined. No one likes to be the target of a complaint, and it is one of the least desirable aspects of coaching children’s sport. Here are ten steps for dealing effectively with the angry sports parent:

1. Avoid discussing the problem at the game
The first thing the coach should, or rather shouldn’t, do is to discuss the problem with the parent on the field, particularly if the parent is irate. The playing field is not the place for confrontations.

2. Agree to meet at more appropriate time/venue
Rather than discuss the problem then and there, the coach should agree to meet or telephone the parent at a mutually convenient time to discuss the complaint. By doing this, the coach avoids giving the parent an audience, allows the parent to ‘cool off ’, and gives him/herself time to prepare an appropriate response to the complaint.

3. Listen
When the meeting or telephone call from the parent does eventuate, one of the most important things a coach can do is listen. The coach should listen reflectively. Little things such as taking notes and nodding to acknowledge you have heard what the parent is saying are crucial.

4. Avoid interrupting
Even if parents raise their voices or their stories have only half the facts, the coach should avoid interrupting. By interrupting a parent, the coach risks inflaming the situation.

5. Don’t dismiss or become defensive
The coach should avoid defending or justifying their actions. Such behavior at this point will only make the situation worse.

6. Show empathy
Statements like ‘I’m sorry that you feel your child has been treated unfairly’ are appropriate at this time. By doing this, parents are more likely to feel that their problem is being taken seriously. They are likely to be calmer and more willing to find a solution.
7. Clarify the problem
This can be achieved by asking probing questions. This helps both parties to focus on the problem (not personalities), stick to the facts, and avoid being caught up in extraneous issues.

8. Offer a range of solutions
As mentioned earlier, many parents are simply content just to let the coach know. If they want more, try to offer a range of solutions. This demonstrates a willingness to work together to solve the problem. It is important to avoid making promises that you cannot keep. Explain to them what you can and cannot do.

9. Obtain closure
In the ideal case the coach will have outlined the options available to the parent and agreed on a mutual course of action. At this point it is appropriate to end the meeting. It should conclude with three things:

- Leave the parent with a closing action statement (eg ‘I’ll get on to that now’).
- Thank the parent for their interest (no matter how unpleasant the meeting).
- If follow-up is required, tell them when you will contact them (‘I’ll ring you tomorrow’).

This will leave the parent feeling as though their complaint has been heard, and the parent-coach relationship will be strengthened.

10. Leave the door open
There will be cases, however, after this whole process where you will not be able to give the parent the response they are looking for. It is important in these circumstances that the coach leave the door open for the parent, eg ‘If there is ever anything else, please come to me’.

By doing this the parent will at least feel that his/her complaint has been taken seriously, and the coach-parent relationship, however strained, will remain intact. This will help to prevent bad word of mouth by the parent against the coach.

Coaching Female Athletes: Strength

Coaching The Female Athlete: Specifically in the weight room
By Meg Stone, East Tennessee State University
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On several occasions I have been approached to offer advice as to how the female athlete should be coached in the weight room. Several years ago, the attitude of both coach and athlete to weight training would have been my first priority for discussion. However, I believe with the increase in awareness of the benefit of strength and conditioning, attitudes have changed and both coach and athlete welcome and understand the benefits that can be derived from a sound strength and conditioning program.

First, both coach and athlete must understand that the weight room and/or strength and conditioning is simply one piece of a puzzle. Strength and Conditioning, Biomechanics, Physiology, Nutrition, Psychology, Performance Technology, and Sports Medicine are all combined and are crucial parts of an overall training program, none of which should be overlooked. When developing a program questions to be considered are as follows:

What muscle groups are being worked?
What are the time-motion analysis characteristics to be trained? (Understanding this approach will go along way to addressing the energy systems involved in the specific sport)?
What muscle actions are involved (concentric eccentric etc)?
What are the primary sites of injury for that activity?

All of the above discussions can be relevant for either gender. Once some of these issues have been identified then the appropriate training regime in the weight room can be established with respect to exercise selection, volume and intensity etc.

In considering the differences between males and females and their approach to strength work it becomes
apparent that there are more similarities than differences. It is those differences the strength coach needs to address in program design and application. When considering the weight program for the beginning female athlete it would be wise to understand the research done on the potential female athlete, remembering that there is no difference in the distribution of fiber type between males and females, but females have a smaller muscle mass with fewer fibers and a smaller cross section of muscle.

Based on absolute values the average male is 30% - 40% stronger than the average female, this finding is not consistent for all muscle groups. Further research indicates the beginning female athlete is anywhere from 40% to 60% weaker in her upper body than her beginner male counter part, and approximately 25% weaker in the lower body.

However, when strength is expressed relative to lean body mass, in some cases there are no gender differences. The primary reason for differences in upper to lower body strength levels is muscle distribution; the greater proportion of the women’s lean body mass is in the lower body. It must be emphasized that strength and conditioning training is just as beneficial to women as it is to men.

Women can gain strength at the same rate or faster than men with the result being an increase in lean body mass and a decrease in percent body fat, both having implications for the enhancement of performance. In a study done by Hakkinen in 1989, it was noted that women in a heavy strength-gaining program (loads over 80%) tended to plateau after three to five months. Several methods of manipulation within the training program can potentially offset this plateau. For example, variation in the training program is paramount for continued improvement in performance. Variation can be attained in several ways: intensity, volume, exercise selection etc.

It is possible that the female athlete may need more work with 80% or more loadings than her male counterpart, in order to maintain near maximum strength levels and optimum power output throughout the training process. These programs have been referred to as “topping up” programs. These types of programs require the coach to pay close attention to the planning of the program. With the younger female athlete, a return to base level conditioning program with high volume and low intensity exercise loadings may be appropriate to raise their level of fitness for a sport. This could be best done in the weight
room using stage-training methodology with appropriate loading to cause the desired adaptation to the training load.

The skeletal system-the female is generally shorter with a wider pelvis and the thigh slanting inwards towards the knees leading to a marked Q-angle. This position is referred to as a valgus position, or in general terms a knock knee type of position. This position can present a challenge to the strength coach in that squatting technique enquires the knees to turn slightly out tracking in line with the toes which generally speaking are also turned slightly outwards.

The female athletes with this marked Q-angle and valgus position during the squatting movement may need more detailed attention paid to the correct squatting position. This can lead to working and maintaining the athlete with lighter working loads in the squat until the correct position in established. Of course, this position would present the same challenge in the squat clean and squat snatch, particularly in the recovery phase of the lift, and any other exercise where a full squatting movement is required.

In producing a program for the female athlete, it is interesting to note that in the USA, research shows that the female athlete is six times more likely to tear an ACL (anterior cruciate ligament) than her male counterpart competing in the same sport. This would suggest the need for additional preparation.
There is probably no single factor, but rather a number of contributing factors such as anatomical, environmental, hormonal and biomechanical. Generally, these injuries occur in non-contact situations in activities such as cutting, pivoting, and deceleration. There a several potential causes which are worthy of attention.

First, the female athlete may generally lack of strength in the lower body both absolutely and relatively due to a relatively untrained status compared to men. Secondly the female athlete may take longer to develop the same relative force level as her male counter part (Rate of Force development is slower than the male). Thirdly, hamstring co-activation maybe important in the maintenance of the integrity of the knee.

A quadriceps dominant knee can lead to a greater anterior translation and therefore more susceptible to injury. Lastly, women do not position themselves during single leg squatting movements the same as men, there is a greater ankle-dorsiflexion, and the hip externally rotates, both of these issues maybe contributory factors in ACL injuries.

Observation of several strength programs suggests that women (and perhaps men) tend to drop or reduce their strength and conditioning programs during the competitive season. This reduction is often justified by a reduction in the loading because of tapering or peaking considerations. The strength and conditioning coach may have a challenge convincing the coach that a calculated reduction is desirable, but if the strength and conditioning program is not carefully planned all the way into the minor and major competitions, then there is a detraining result that can lead to a reduction in performance and an increase in injury potential. Other conditioning factors can contribute to injury such as poor running technique, invariably caused by neglecting a sound strengthening protocol.

Again, generally the limbs of the female are shorter and the shoulders narrower. The strength coach is dealing with a lighter body frame and a lower center of gravity. All of the above can have implications for running and lifting and mechanics both key element of a sound strength and conditioning program.

The strength coach should also look for a marked carrying angle at the elbow another factor to consider when trying to strength the upper body This structural issue may require extra attention to strengthen the ligaments and tendons surrounding the wrist, elbow and shoulder particularly as a prerequisite for overhead lifts such as the snatch, commonly used in many sports to strength overhead movements.

Shoulders size in comparison with the wide pelvis can lead to a marked rotation of the upper body as seen in some young female sprinters. This can be somewhat rectified by emphasizing upper body strengthening exercises early in the development of the female sprinter, during the first general preparation phase of training. Hypertrophy and strengthening work can help alleviate the problem of over- rotation of the upper body and enhance good sprints mechanics. Many female athletes tend to perform a high volume of work with fewer calories than would be expected. This restricted calorie intake results in reduced intake of essential nutrients important for optimal performance. The strength and conditioning coach should carefully observe and monitor the behavior of the athlete for signs of fatigue in general but directly related to restricted calorie intake and refer the athlete for nutritional counseling.

Hormonal Considerations- The menstrual cycle of the female athlete has not been well studied for various reasons primarily because of the variation in the structure of the cycle. Conflicting reports have placed the optimum time for strength gains at various time lines through both the luteal and follicular phases. What we do know is that there is a spike in the release of testosterone during ovulation between these two phases but how to use this increase in testosterone in strength development is as yet uncertain.

The training program of the female should consist of the following elements:
Olympic Lift to enhance explosiveness – taught safely and correctly
Multi-set structure to the workout
Predominant use of free weight machine used in supplementary work
Over head or free body weight exercise to enhance trunk strengthening work
All program should involve the three key elements of a training program:
Specificity, Variation and Overload

Conclusion
In summary, there should be few differences in the weight programs for women compared to men. Individual differences are more determined by sport specific training than gender. The beginning female athlete may need a longer general preparation period to elevate fitness levels. It maybe necessary to conduct more upper body strength work with the female athlete. Variation does play a key part in the continued improvement of the female athlete. Much more study is needed in order to understand the potential benefits and pitfalls of the menstrual cycle in the female athlete.

Rowing Technique

Rowing Technique For Coaches – Catch, Drive, Release, Recovery
by Adair Ferguson, Sports Development Officer, ACT Rowing Association
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A series of four practical workshops including aims, teaching points, common errors, and fault correction exercises

Introduction

There are many rowing textbooks available outlining the points of good rowing technique, and any good coach should acquaint themselves with a few. The Rowing Australia Coaches Corner Store is a good source of these texts.

Texts, while very useful, are sometimes a little too comprehensive and sometimes have rather “mechanical” descriptions in their efforts to achieve an air of objectivity. It can be hard to sort out the essential practical points of teaching good technique, and, where texts differ (and they do), to sort out the wheat from the chaff.

What I have tried to do with this series of workshops is to distil all the theories into some basic aims, some practical teaching points, common errors and fault correction exercises. I’ve mixed what is in the texts with what is endorsed by Rowing Australia and incorporated some ‘tricks of the trade’ that I have picked up in my own rowing career, during which I have been coached by a number of very good coaches.

I have also learned from experience that with any advice on rowing technique there are two major provisos:
People are different—in body type, motor skills, limb lengths and strengths and weaknesses. What works really well for one person may not work quite so well for another. Effective variations on basic good technique can and do exist—there is often more than one way to skin the proverbial cat.

It is difficult to isolate one element of the stroke from another when they are all so interdependent—for example a major reason for a poor catch may lie in how the rower comes forward on the slide.

Part 1: The catch
The Aim of a good catch is to put the blade (s) into the water at the maximum point of reach and to take up the drive directly without “missing water”, and without disturbing the run of the boat.
The catch is the last thing you do on the way forward. A good catch drops vertically and directly into the water at the end of the slide forward. The hands reach forward and up and almost let go as the blades drop straight down. This is the quickest entry the blades can have. There is an instant of stillness as you reach full slide just before you change direction—this is the instant that the blade must enter the water. It requires perfect timing which in practice means that the movement must begin earlier than instinct would tell you. It helps to think of dropping the blades in as you are still coming forward.

Teaching points—the catch
(1) As the seat slides forward to the catch, the body position is stable and the arms, while straight-ish, are relaxed rather than ramrod straight.

(2) Only the hands need to move up and forward slightly to drop the blade(s) in. This is achieved by stretching the arms and shoulder girdle “up and away” from you in a smooth and coordinated way while simultaneously letting the blades fall. (We are not talking big movements here—it should be barely perceptible from a coaches speedboat.)
(3) The splash from the blade as it drops in should be even on each side of the blade.

(4) The blade should drop so that the whole of the blade is just beneath the surface of the water—the blade is designed to float at this level.

(5) When the blade has dropped the legs/feet should initiate the leg drive, which should be in tune with the speed of the boat (e.g. faster leg drive for quads and eights, slower leg drive for single scull).(Note: If you were to let the blade go entirely as you were dropping it in, the blade would drop slightly below the surface of the water then bob up again before settling in its floating position. A good trick is to think of initiating the leg drive (smoothly) before the blade can bob up).

(6) All the above should be executed in a way to minimise disturbance to the run of the boat. (This means being smooth into the front and having a momentary period of calmness as the blades enter the water before the leg drive is applied.)
(7) With a good catch where little water is missed, the blades make a ‘gloop’ sound as they enter the water (rather than a smacking or splashing sound).

Common faults—the catch
(1) Hands dip before the catch resulting in “skying” of the blades (i.e. blades are high off the water) and then blade is chopped into the water. Usually a lot of water is “missed”.

(2) Overreaching into the catch where the body keeps moving over the knees in a general downward trajectory. The shoulders are then used to initiate the catch as they open back to a more upright position. Invariably much of this part of the stroke is in the air, resulting in “missed water”. The initial dipping of the body tends to push the stern of the boat down in the water and check the run of the boat. The lifting of the back to put the blade in the water results in a very weak and inefficient beginning to the stroke as the legs are not being applied.

(3) Arms bent at the catch and early in the stroke, which will mean a weak stroke at this point because the full power of the legs cannot be applied if the arms have to be held in a bent position. Alternatively the arms snap straight after the leg drive is applied, which is a waste of the leg drive as the legs have been applied with no resulting movement on the oar.

(4) Racing into the catch, causing overreaching, with the same effects as in (2) above.

(5) Late squaring—blade is not squared until after the full slide is reached, causing a late entry of the blade into water and missed water.

(6) Leg drive is initiated before the blade is in the water, resulting in a stopping of the boat at every catch.

(7) Blades carried too high off the water, resulting in chopping into the water as in (1) and (2) above.

(8) Blades carried too low to the water, resulting in a dipping of the hands and skying of the blade (as in (1) above) to make room for it to square before dropping it in.

(9) Hesitating at the catch, rather than having a smooth, seamless change of direction. Inevitable result is an initiation of the leg drive before the blade is in, and a chopping of the blade into the water and with all the faults outlined in (1) and (2) and (6) above.

Disadvantages of missed water or a late catch
shorter effective stroke, hence less acceleration developed, hence lower boat speed
wasted time at catch means having to rush forward in order to attain a high rating. Rushing forward means that the change in direction at the catch is sudden and severe and results in a checking or stopping of the boat run
blades go too deep into the water, applying unwanted vertical forces, and inevitably resulting in a dirty and untidy finish which will also slow boat run.
leads to poor legs/body/arms coordination during the drive phase of the stroke with the final result being that the second half of the stroke is taken with the arms only, which results in a weak finish and poor acceleration of the hull.

Fault correction exercises—the catch
1. Catch slap
Description: In a normal stroke after arriving at the catch position lift hands up to put blades in but keep the blades feathered so that they “slap” the water then square and put them in the water.

Purpose: To assist in learning to raise the hands to drop blades into water; to assist timing of the catch in a crew boat; to stop the legs coming on before the catch, i.e. to separate the catch from the leg drive.

2. Roll ups/strikes
Description: Starting at the finish with square blades, extract the blades, feather, and slide up to the catch position making sure that the crew goes through the recovery smoothly and with the correct sequence reaching body over by about half slide. From here they simply keep the seat moving to the front without any extra body swing. The catch is then taken with the hands only and is not followed by the leg drive. Try to make the “gloop” sound as you put the blades in at the catch.

Purpose: To slow down the preparation for the catch ensuring the body position is set and stable before taking the catch so that the catch is taken with the hands only; to reinforce the idea that the catch is part of the recovery and is the last thing you do on the way forward rather than the first thing in the drive; to separate the catch from the leg drive (good for correcting crews who get their leg drive on before the blades are in the water).

3. Feet out
Description: Row with the feet out of the shoes.

Purpose: To encourage relaxation and balance on the way forward; to stop the rower racing into the front by pulling themselves forward by the foot stretcher. Racing into the front always leads to a poor catch.

4. Early squaring
Description: Squaring the blade earlier than usual.

Purpose: An exaggeration exercise for rowers who square late and consequently have slow catches.

5. Double catches
Description: Place blades in at catch then take out and place in again.

Purpose: To reinforce the idea that only the hands need to be used to put the blades into the water.

6. Catch drop and hit
Description: Drop the blades into the water in the catch position and initiate the leg drive before the blades bob up to the surface.

Purpose: To encourage good timing of the catch and the leg drive; to separate the catch from the leg drive (in that order) by as small a gap as possible.

Part 2: The Drive
The Aim of the drive is to impart maximum work (force times distance) to the boat in the direction of travel while minimising any forces that may retard the run of the boat (i.e. maximum total force with minimal disturbance).

The drive involves the legs, body and arms working together in an overlapping sequence (in that order). The drive should be in tune with the speed of the boat. The bigger the boat the faster the initial leg drive and quicker the build-up of force should be. Smaller and slower boats such as singles and pairs should be moved with a comparatively lighter catch and slower build-up of maximum force.

Teaching points—the drive
(1) The leg drive should be initiated directly after the catch when the blades are in the water (NOT before).
(2) The pick-up of the drive at the catch should be in tune with the speed of the boat.
(3) The sequence of movements is as follows:
(4) The drive should be taken with the legs first—the upper body and shoulders remain over the knees while the feet press into the stretcher.
(5) This creates what is known as the Hang where all the tension is in the legs as the prime movers—they are by far the most powerful muscles. The arms and shoulder girdle are drawn forward and body feels light on the seat, suspended between the feet and the hands. This arms are not exerting any force at this early stage of the drive.
(6) At mid-drive maximum force is being exerted on the boat because the blades are exerting force on the boat directly in the direction of boat run. The angle between the trunk and the horizontal has opened (unrolled) a little, and the body weight is still suspended between legs and arms.
(7) As the stroke comes through mid drive the arms start to come into play, the movement being initiated by further opening of the body and drawing the shoulders back.
(8) Legs, upper body, and arms all work in an overlapping sequence and should finish almost together for maximum accumulation of force and acceleration. (In actual fact the legs finish slightly before the arms, but it feels as if they finish together).
(9) The leg drive should accelerate through the stroke as does the boat speed.
(10) The speed of the handle(s) accelerates through the drive, reaching maximum speed just before the release. This will result in a clean finish as there is a “pocket” of air formed behind the blade which makes it easier to take the blade out of the water.
(11) The blade should be just covered throughout the stroke at an even depth. This can only occur if the draw is “flat”, i.e. horizontal.
(12) The force applied to the boat during the drive should be smooth throughout, without any “two-part” action. This will result in the maximum summation of forces possible from the legs, upper body, and arms working smoothly together in correct sequence.

Common faults—the drive
(1) The blades “bounce” through the stroke, bobbing up and down in the water—indicating an uneven, i.e. a non-linear and non-accelerating application of force.
(2) The blades go deep at the catch then come out before the finish of the drive (“rowed out”).
(3) The leg drive finishes well before the arms so they can’t work together. The finish is sluggish and the blades don’t come out cleanly and easily—this slows the run of the boat.
(4) Taking the catch with the shoulders and upper body (see section on The Catch).
(5) “Bum shoving” where the legs are extended and the bum goes back, but the upper body is left behind at the catch position and the oar handles don’t move. This often results in the blades going deep as the body swings open quickly to “catch up” to the legs. An unnecessary and energy-wasting vertical force component is applied to the blades/boat. and boat run is diminished
(6) Jamming the legs on hard at the catch so that the boat is checked at the catch and stops every stroke.
(7) Swinging to one side or other during the drive, unbalancing the boat.
(8) Raising the shoulders (hunching) during arm draw, resulting in less than optimal horizontal force being applied.

Fault correction exercises—the drive
1. Catch drop and hit
Description: Drop the blades into the water in the catch position and initiate the leg drive before the blades bob up to the surface.

Purpose: To encourage good timing of the catch and the leg drive; to separate the catch from the leg drive (in that order) by as small a gap as possible.

2. Taking the drive with the legs only
Description: The upper body is left in the catch position while the leg drive is taken to point where the legs are fully extended and the body is still in the catch position. The blades are extracted at this point.

Purpose: This is a tricky exercise to perform and is meant to correct taking the catch with the upper body. It is an exaggeration and not meant to be the correct way to execute the stroke. Many novice rowers “bum shove” and this exercise is not suitable for them. It is meant only for those who take the catch with their shoulders.

3. Working up the slide
Description: Starting at back chocks row with hands only for 20 strokes , then 20 strokes with body swing, 20 at 1/4 slide, 20 at 1/2 slide, 20 at 3/4 slide, then full slide.

Purpose: To correct bum shove by helping to coordinate the drive so that the legs and upper body/arms finish together.

4. Ergometer rowing
Ergometer rowing is a good way to correct bum shove or other major sequencing problems through the stroke, especially if there is a mirror wall available for the rower to check his/her position.

Ergometer rowing is also good for demonstrating the Hang during the drive. Get the rower to slide up to the catch position. The next step is to secure the handle so that the rower cannot pull it back towards them. A rope securing the handle to something solid would do, or if the ergo is a Concept model B, a long screwdriver can be wedged between the fan blade and the surrounding cage. Get the rower to push with the legs so that the bum feels light on the seat, the shoulders feel pulled out of their sockets and the weight is suspended between the balls of the feet and the hands. If you have used the jammed screwdriver trick. the screwdriver can then be released when the rower is hanging correctly.

5. Building the pressure applied during the drive
Description: Row 20 strokes with very light catches building to light finishes, then 20 with light catches building to 1/2 pressure finishes, then 20 building to 3/4 pressure finishes, then 20 with light catches building to full pressure finishes.

Purpose: To correct taking the catch too hard and to demonstrate the rhythm in the leg drive. It is also especially good for getting the leg drives together in a crew boat.

6. Resistance rowing
Description: This can be done with a resistance strap of some kind around the boat or rowing in a crew boat with some of the crew not rowing to provide resistance. It can also be done on an ergo with the resistance turned right up.

Purpose: Is useful to demonstrate effective application of force, e.g. if arms are being bent too early the stroke will not be strong and it will be more apparent when the resistance is much higher than normal. This will encourage correct use of the legs to initiate the stroke, and hanging the body weight through the draw because the arms alone will not be strong enough to do much effective work.

7. Looking at the blade moving through the water
Description and Purpose: The rower looks at the blade while rowing to check the blade depth through the stroke, whether the finishes are clean and the type of puddles made. Optimum force is being applied if puddles are deep and swirling but not splashy.

8. Taking as few strokes as possible in a set distance
Description: Try to take as few strokes as possible to complete a set distance or conversely take a set number of strokes (say 20 or 30) and see how far you can get in comparison with another crew. This can be done at any level from beginner to elite level and is similar to set rating pieces but is more easily managed. (It is very hard to ensure that a set rating is being adhered to if you are coaching a number of crews at once).

Purpose: These exercises reinforce that an effective stroke has a very powerful drive phase which comes mainly from the legs, and a very relaxed recovery.

Part 3: The release
The Aim of an effective release or “finish” is to extract the blades from the water at the completion of the drive with as little disturbance to the run of the boat as possible.

Teaching points—the release
(1) A good release should be part of the continuous acceleration of the drive so that the air pocket created behind the blade doesn’t fill in and create a “dirty” finish where there is a lot of water splashed around the blade as it is extracted. A dirty finish will slow the boat down just where it should be accelerating. (The fastest speed that the boat achieves is just after the release and it is important not to disrupt this acceleration.)
(2) The power of the finish should derive mainly from a strong leg drive with a coordinated opening of the body and arm draw to add to the total force applied.
(3) The release should be flat, in line with the rest of the draw, not drawn down into the lap. The rower needs to feel that he/she is pulling the handle up into the finish.
(4) The release should be executed with flat wrists or a slight downward rotation of the wrist (inside wrist in sweep-oared boats) to help feather the blade, with minimal tap down of the handles for sculling blades (just enough to clear the blades from the water). This is because with cleaver blades most of the blade hangs below the shaft, and once the blade is feathered the shaft does not have to be lifted very far to clear the water surface. Try to feather the blade in the air pocket created behind the blade, which will ensure a clean release.
(5) With sculling blades learn to feather by rolling the handles into the fingertips rather than by dropping the wrists. With sweep blades use the inside wrist to feather (although many scullers use both wrists with sweep oars)
(6) At the release the elbows should be drawn back past the body, with forearms parallel to the water. The shoulder blades should also be drawn back (and should feel as if they are meeting in the middle of your back in sculling boats). In sculling boats it is okay to follow the handles round their arc at the finish and draw the elbows slightly out to the sides (but still keeping the forearms parallel to the water).
(7) The release should be smooth, not jerky
(8) At the finish the hands should come in, around the turn, and away without stopping—it keeps the finish smooth and saves time when rowing at high ratings, so that there is less need to rush forward up the slide (thereby introducing a whole range of boat-stopping movements).
(9) A strong stable body is necessary for a strong finish because the body must be held steady while the blades are drawn to it.
(10) At the release the body should be just leaning back from the vertical about 25 degrees but not slumped, and the head should be looking straight ahead (not thrown back or with the chin on the chest).
(11) In a sculling boats the hands should be approximately 14–16 cm apart at the release, depending on the size and build of the rower. Sculling blades should not be able to be pulled past the body.

Common faults—the release
(1) Pulling the handle down into the lap, causing the blade to wash out and resulting in a shorter, less effective stroke.
(2) “Lugging it in” at the finish, i.e. leaning back too far and pulling the handle heavily downwards to finish off the stroke. This causes the boat to dip at the finish, slowing the boat run.
(3) Handles slowing down at the finish—usually caused by lack of coordination between the legs, upper body and arms through the stroke so there isn’t an efficient summation of forces culminating in maximum acceleration. Often the leg drive is finished early, leaving the weaker arms to finish the stroke—a two-part drive and weak finish result.
(4) Slow finishes can also be caused by lack of skill with feathering. This is common with beginners.
(5) Elbows “winging” out at the finish—this will not result in maximum force due to an inefficient pulling angle, making arm draw weak.
(6) Drawing the body to the handle rather than the handle through to the body.
(7) Drawing the handle too far past the body, or not drawing the handle far enough through (cutting it off).
(8) Leaning too far back at the finish or not leaning back far enough.
(9) All the above are common faults with beginners. It is very important that rowers form a mental and sensory picture of correct body posture at the release. Videos and work on the ergo in front of a mirror are very good for this feedback.
(10) With beginners a lack of core stability strength may be contributing to the incorrect posture at the finish. Gym work on abdominal strength and upper and lower back strength will help core stability. Even elite crews do work on developing and maintaining core strength as it is very important for injury prevention.

Fault correction exercises—the release
A good release is the product of a good coordinated drive phase, so it is difficult to separate release exercises from exercises for the drive.

1. Tapping down and away exercise
Description: Sitting at finish and tapping the handle down and away repeatedly.

Purpose: To develop tap down and feathering skills. For crews it also good for coordinating the timing of the release.

2. Square blade rowing and delayed feather
Description: As per title. A delayed feather is when you extract the blade vertically, then feather the blade once it is clear of the water.

Purpose: To develop tap down and feathering skills; for separating the two actions.

3. Building abdominal and back strength
Description and Purpose: Sit-ups are effective for building strength in the abdominal muscles. There are several exercises with and without weights for developing back strength.

4. Rowing hands only
Description: Sitting at back chocks rowing hands only without any body swing.

Purpose: Helps to establish a strong finish position and cement that position in the mind.

5. Quarter slide work
Description and Purpose: Quarter slide work with squared or feathered blades is good for coordinating the finish. Starting at 1/4 slide and progressing down the slide to full slide is also a good exercise for this coordination. All 1/4 slide work will improve the stability at finish if done correctly. Quarter slide work is also good for improving feathering skills.

When done at speed 1/4 to 1/2 slide work is a good warm-up to bring crews together in the timing of the release.

Part 4: The recovery
The Aim of a good recovery is to carry the blades forward to the catch position with minimal effect on the run of the boat. It is also a time for recovery from fatigue and provides a time to relax the prime moving muscles.

Teaching points—the recovery
A good recovery should be in tune with the speed of the boat and take at least twice the time of the drive. It sets the rhythm of the boat and a top crew will always have a relaxed efficient recovery.
A good recovery will set the rower up for a relaxed but sharp catch, with little missed water.

The sequence of movements is as follows:
(1) The hands come away smoothly from the release, with the knees held down to give the boat stability and allow the boat to accelerate from the release.
(2) As the hands pass over the knees the shoulders follow the hands forward, followed by the seat moving smoothly up the slide as you let the boat come all the way under you. The body angle for the catch position is achieved by 1/2 slide
(3) The speed up the slide should be constant or slowing slightly all the way to the catch with no jerky movements or pauses at any point.
(4) The hands should come forward at the correct height with blades just above the water with enough clearance to square before the catch without having to make room by skying the blade before the catch.
(5) Hand heights in a crew should be even as should bow and stroke sides in a sweep boat.
(6) The upper body should be as relaxed as possible (“rubbery” or “like a blancmange”) on the way forward. This allows the muscles a chance to recover, be replenished with oxygen and have waste metabolic products cleared (more difficult if constricted). This is also useful in rough water where if the rower is tense the movements of body and boat will be exaggerated.
(7) Above all the rower should develop a “feel” for the boat and be sensitive to the way the boat runs under him/her so as not to disturb the run.

Fault correction exercises—the recovery
1. Exaggeration of the recovery time
Description: Ensure a very slow slide by counting “1000, 2000, 3000” for the recovery, then “4000” for the drive. Alternatively you could have an experienced stroke in the crew who will stick to this slow recovery time. Progress to counting “1000, 2000” for the recovery and “3000” for the drive.

Purpose: To encourage a smooth controlled recovery; to encourage crews to let the boat run on the recovery.

2. Feet out rowing
Description and Purpose: Rowing with the feet out of the shoes will ensure a smooth recovery in tune with the speed of the boat because rowers will not be able to pull themselves forward by their feet and will not speed up as they come into the catch. It also helps boat balancing skills, as the balance has to be achieved with the hands only and hand heights have to be perfect.

3. Square blade rowing and variations
Description and Purpose: Square blade rowing will ensure a consistent handle height on the recovery and guard against carrying the blades too low to the water to feather without skying.

A variation on the exercise is the delayed feather where the blade is feathered between 1/4 and 1/2 slide on the way forward.

A further progression from this exercise is the double feather where the blade is squared and feathered twice on the recovery. This is really only suitable for experienced crews.

4. Checks or pauses during the recovery
Description and Purpose: A very useful sequence of exercises are checks or pauses during the recovery, then rowing on. These can be made at various positions depending on the problems with the rowers/crew.

Pausing at hands away is good for crews who do not sit back at the finish and do not hold their knees down while the release is made. It is also good for crews who need work on the timing at the release and the “hands away” beginning of the recovery. Many crews have problems here with different hand speeds which, in turn will cause different slide speeds as the crew members try to get into synchronisation with each other on the way forward. Different slide speeds will result in a wobbly, unstable boat.

Pausing at “bodies over” is a very good exercise for those rowers who don’t have much body swing forward from the finish. Without this they will not be correctly set up for the catch and may dive into the catch. It is also good for rowers who do not hold their knees down while their shoulders come forward. Holding the knees down while the upper body swings forward allows the boat to be more stable and gives the boat time for maximum run from the release.

Basic Training

Basic Training
By Ed McNeely.
From Independent Rowing News. Vol. 8, Issue No. 17, October 25, 2001
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There are five aerobic and one anaerobic training categories. Each of the categories causes a specific adaptation that moves the rower one step closer to achieving their performance goals. Over the course of a training year the categories are performed in the order presented. When a higher category is introduced the lower category is maintained.

Category VI
Category VI (CAT VI) encompasses all intensities up to aerobic threshold. Slow twitch muscle fibers are targeted during category VI training leading to improved lactic acid removal and rowing efficiency. Aerobic base, built in CAT VI, is the foundation for higher intensity interval training. During
the work phase of an interval lactic acid builds up. If the lactate is not removed during the recovery phase of the interval the next work period won't be done at the same speed as the previous one. In order for intervals to be effective the speed of each interval must be maintained. Without an adequate base a high volume of interval training is impossible.

The majority of the year will be spent training in CAT VI. There have been several studies that have looked at the training programs used by the top rowing countries in the world. They have consistently found that the top rowers perform only 5-10% of their total training volume as higher intensity intervals. Increasing the volume of these intervals doesn't seem to increase VO2 max or rowing performance any more than the lower volume. In fact many countries have their athletes spend more than 80% of their training time below aerobic threshold.

CAT VI training is not only preparation for interval training but it is the ideal intensity for technical work. Skill learning is most effective at lower intensities. This is because lactic acid and fatigue impairs the ability to learn skills. It is only once the skill has become automated, following 5000 repetitions done exactly the same way, at low speed that the skill can be successfully transferred to higher intensity training and performance.

When designing exercise prescriptions for category VI several key concepts should be remembered.
(1) Long training sessions are done less frequently. For example, four hour training sessions need only be done three to four times per week but 60minute sessions may be done eight to 10 times per week.
(2) The duration of the training session should, in part, be based on the demands of the event. Head racers and marathon rowers need much longer sessions than 1000meter or 2000meter racers. In any case the minimum duration for a CAT VI session is 40 minutes. Anything less is insufficient to create a training effect.
(3) During certain phases of the year training will be focused on specific event preparation. During this time category VI training should be maintained so that detraining does not occur. (4) If the training session is less than two hours long another category VI session could be done with two to four hours rest.

Category V
Category V (CAT V) represents those training intensities between aerobic threshold and anaerobic threshold. Category V is part of aerobic base training. Since category V is between the thresholds the lactate values for this category fall between two and four mMol of lactate. CAT V training is important for head racing. In longer head races, 30 minutes or more, as much as half of the race may be done at the upper end of CAT V. No more than 35% of total training volume should be dedicated to CAT V. This number can increase to 10% if several years of high volume CAT VI training have firmly established aerobic base.

Category V training uses slow twitch fibers as well as some FOG (fast oxidative glycolytic) fibers. FOG fibers are an endurance fast twitch fiber with as much or more aerobic capacity than slow twitch fibers. In rowers, the FOG fibers are the largest fibers but are not as plentiful as the slow twitch fibers.

Training in category V can either be done as steady state exercise or long undulating intervals. Since category V intervals are below anaerobic threshold they do not cause an accumulation of lactic acid. Therefore, there are no set work and rest periods. The main purpose of the intervals is to vary the motor units that are recruited by changing exercise intensity. Since the intensity is only slightly higher training volumes tend to be similar to Category VI.

Category V training is usually started after six to eight weeks of category VI training are completed. The key concepts outlined in category VI apply to category V. Category V sessions rely primarily on carbohydrate as an energy source. In order to replenish the carbohydrate used the time between CAT V sessions should be eight to 12 hours. When category V training is started there may be a reduction in the number of category VI sessions.

Category IV
Category IV (CAT IV) is a narrow band just above and just below anaerobic threshold. Lactate values for CAT IV fall between 3.5 and 5.5. There are two objectives to CAT IV training. For those racing 1000and 2000meters the goal is to move anaerobic threshold closer to VO2 max. Ideally anaerobic threshold occurs at 80-85% of VO2 max. Interval training can be used to increase anaerobic threshold.

Most training at or above anaerobic threshold uses intervals. The volume of high intensity work is the key to improving in these categories. The recovery period between intervals lets the body deal with the lactate that is produced during the work period. This allows a high volume to be completed than if no recovery periods were taken. Recovery periods for aerobic training should not be less than 35 minutes. Using a 23:1 rest: work ratio will ensure adequate recovery between repeats. In other words, if your work interval is 3 minutes the recovery interval is 69 minutes. Recovery should be active in either CAT VI or V.

One of the goals in preparing for a head race is to increase the amount of time that anaerobic threshold can be maintained. Threshold endurance training uses steady state exercise at anaerobic threshold for periods of 20-30 minutes. These training sessions become very similar to races and should only be done in the 46 weeks prior to the racing season. Training for threshold endurance more than once a week can quickly lead to overtraining and possible injury.

Category III
Category III represents intensities between anaerobic threshold and VO2 max. Since category III is above anaerobic threshold training has to be done interval style to obtain an adequate volume. One of the objectives of category III training is to let the athlete perform at higher levels of lactate and to promote lactate recovery. Many of the cardiac adaptations to aerobic training are seen at this training category. Since the intensity of category III training is quite high no more than 12 training sessions per week of this training should be scheduled.

Normally, category III is trained during the precompetitive
and competitive phases of the year with occasional maintenance sessions (once a month) during the rest of the year. More than four to six weeks of category III training is unnecessary and doesn't produce better fitness. The increase in peak power output following category III training is a good indicator of increased VO2 max. Category III intervals are four to 10 minutes duration with eight to 20 minutes recovery. Recovery is active and is done in category VI. This is repeated for a total of 20 to 30 minutes of work time per training session.

Category II
Category II exercise is exercise in which the participants perform for as long as possible at VO2 max. The objective of category II training is to increase VO2 max and endurance time at VO2 max. VO2 max level exercise can normally be maintained for two to 12 minutes with an average of six minutes. In preparing for a 1000meter race CAT II training should be done once a week for the final month before a major competition. However, if racing frequently, more than twice a month, CAT II training is unnecessary.

Training in category II is similar to category III. Intervals consist of two to seven minutes work followed by 10 to 20 minutes rest. This is repeated for a total of 10 to 20 minutes of work per training session. Since the intensity is very high this type of training should only be done one to two times per week and only during the final part of the precompetitive
phase. Regular racing is often enough to maintain and even improve category II fitness.

Category I
Category I is an anaerobic training category. Humans produce energy from two energy systems. The aerobic system requires oxygen to take part in the chemical reactions that produce energy. The anaerobic energy systems don't require oxygen. The anaerobic systems produce energy at a much higher rate than the aerobic system but they have a limited capacity. In 2000meter racing about 70-80% of the energy used comes from the aerobic system and 20-30% from the anaerobic systems.

A 1000meter race, which for the purposes of this article takes about 3:30 - 4:30 to complete, is probably about 50- 60% anaerobic and 40-50% aerobic. Anaerobic training, consisting of all out sprints for 10 second2 minutes, also plays a more important role for a masters rower. Energy for the initial 20 seconds of the race is provided by the anaerobic alactic energy system. This means that the body is using the energy (ATPCP) that is stored in the muscles for immediate use. Improvements in this system can be brought about either through training or by using a creatine supplement. While using a creatine supplement is the fast way to increase the capacity of the anaerobic alactic system it may result in water retention and weight gain, which may offset any performance improvement the supplement provides.

Anaerobic alactic training is done using short sprints of 520 seconds in duration. The sprints can be done from a stop or while the boat is moving. These sprints should be added to the program about 6 weeks prior to your major competition 12 times per week. They can be occasionally during winter training but not more than once a month. The final sprint is supported by the anaerobic lactic energy system (anaerobic glycolysis). Accounting for up to 50% of the race, the final sprint is crucial for success in a 1000meter race.

Training the anaerobic lactic energy system improves the rate of energy production in this system and increases the body's ability to buffer or tolerate lactic acid. As with the lactic sprints the anaerobic lactic training is introduced 68 weeks before the major competition and is done only about once a week. There should be at least one day between anaerobic training sessions.

Rigging Your Single Scull

RIGGING YOUR SINGLE SCULLBy Filipe Salbany.
Private Correspondence with Editor. August 2006
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When you mention rigging usually one of two things occurs: either your friend starts running out the door as fast as possible claiming a sudden appointment or a broad smile comes across his face as he rubs his hands together getting ready to dig into his toolbox. Like the cross-country skier who spends more time waxing skis than skiing on them, we too have that type character in our sport - the rigging fanatic. This type of extremist will not hesitate to tinker and move something on his single almost daily. The unconfident rigger though, will avoid touching any nut or bolt at any cost, afraid of opening up Pandora’s box and sliding into an irreversible state of chaos. Needless to say, a happy, healthy, balanced medium can be reached when it comes to knowledge of rigging. Approaching rigging your single in a calm, organized fashion can help you learn about an important technical aspect of sculling that you might even find enjoyable. This mini-series will attempt to clarify how to rig your single and give you a systematic approach to doing so.

Getting Started:
Rigging is the art and science of adjusting a boat and oars to meet your individual needs. The hardware of a boat such as: riggers, pins, oarlocks, foot stretchers, seat, and tracks can be set to optimize your biomechanical position in the boat in conjunction with your chosen oar dimensions and blade type. The make of your boat will dictate the amount of adjustability available to you. Generally, performance singles have the widest range of possibilities to customize your rig.
Before you begin you will need to get organized:
-Keep a logbook of all your rigging activities. Record the date and current measurements so you can retrace your steps if you need to.
-Have the correct tools ready: Hex keys, wrenches, a pitch meter, a long carpenter’s level, and a tape measure with centimeters.
-Put your boat up on slings in a quiet place away from the distractions and curiosity of other scullers willing to give you lots of advice.
-Take your time and write everything down.
-Complete one step at a time.
-Once you measure, measure again.
-If you get tired, take a break. Keep your sense of humor.

Setting Up Your Boat:

Before you start to take measurements or change the dimensions of your rigging you need to set your boat up in a way that will make it easy for you to work on it. Since a third hand is not always easy to come by here is a suggested way.
-Set your boat on slings of about the same size. To stabilize your boat, take a rod or stick (like a broomstick) and place it vertical next to one of the riggers. Using a large spring clamp- clamp the rigger to the stick to prevent the boat from tipping.
-Level the boat end-to-end. Place the carpenter’s level along a level part of the boat such as the base of the gunnel; do not use the seat deck because there is a slight angle from bow to stern. If needed, fold and prop a towel between the boat and sling to level the boat.
-Level the boat side-to-side. Place the carpenter’s level across the gunnels. When the bubble is centered, adjust the clamped rigger with the vertical stick to hold the boat level.
-Strap or tie your boat to the slings to further stabilize it.
-Bring your toolbox near by. Now you are ready to start.

When you rig your single you are setting the dimensions of the riggers and oars to maximize your biomechanical efficiency and comfort in the boat. As we know, rigging is not an exact science as there is a fair amount of art and "touch" mixed in. There are some basic rules and references that need to be adhered to and serve as a platform to fine-tune your boat for you. Your rigging needs can also change over time. As certain elements of your technique improve, rigging details can be adapted to support those improvements.

Keep in mind that you are working multi-dimensionally when you rig your boat. You are balancing horizontal, vertical, angled, and diagonal measurements to create a leverage system that allows you to move the boat effectively. When you make one change to your rigging it affects the entire system and small alterations, at times, can produce large effects. Once you alter your rig you need to row with it several times to get accustomed to a new feel to decide whether the change was positive or not. Using a speed device such as a Speedcoach(tm) that can measure meters per second, distance, and 500-meter split times, is useful for objectively observing whether a rigging change makes you go faster or not. Having a stretch of flat water without current is valuable for testing rigging changes over 500-meter or 1000-meter repeats.

Before we start measuring, the following descriptions of the terms "through the pin" and "load" will give you an overview of important aspects of rigging.

Through the Pin:
The pin is the vertical axle the oarlock rotates around that extends upward from the end of the rigger. In rigging, the pin serves as a reference point for positioning yourself in the boat. The terms "through the pin" and "work through" refer to where the centerline of the hip joint and the seat is relative to the location of the pin. The hip joint axis may be behind, equal to, or astern of the pin at the catch position. Drawing an imaginary line from pin to pin provides a standard for the hip joint axis to reach in full compression when ready for the catch. In a performance single it is desirable to be at zero, or equal, with the pin. In a faster moving boat you may work 1-2 cm through the pin. Your flexibility, skill level, and boat type can all affect your ability to get up through the pin, but the point here is to identify the pin as a reference. Being centered in the boat and around the "work" helps to produce the optimum angle of the oar at the catch and the release. This prevents the boat from being "pinched" which is when the blade is in an ineffective, extreme position that actually pushes water laterally against the hull disrupting forward propulsion.

Load:
Load is the term that defines the resultant energy relationship of the distance between the pins, inboard/outboard settings of the oars, blade size, and a sculler’s physical dimensions. On a rowing ergometer, the concept of load is illustrated by setting the damper resistance high at "10" or low at "1" and is expressed as drag factor. Unfortunately, in the boat, there is no clear-cut way for the average person to define drag factor and measure the load of their rigging system. There does exist, however, reasonable parameters to follow as we continue our discussion of rigging.

Keep in mind that more is not necessarily better when it comes to load. It can be too heavy producing undo stress on the lumbar spine, creating excessively large arcs in the water, and making it a strain to increase your stroke rate adequately during a race. On the contrary, too light is a bit like trying to pedal a bike down a hill while spinning your large chain ring; you need to take too many strokes to maintain the desired speed. Your individual body dimensions, strength, and race pace stroke rating, play a role in how much load you can optimally row with. Boat builder, Ted Van Dusen, of Concord, MA, advised to, "Rig for the end of your race," meaning set a load that is adequate to maintain efficient race tempo yet light enough that you can increase the stroke rate for the final sprint when you are in a fatigued state.
Approaching rigging in an orderly, systematic way will make it easier for you to detect problems and make adjustments accordingly. If you are rigging your boat for the first time, get all your measurements within a reasonable range. Once the boat is rigged, then make only one change at a time so you can assess the effect. Remember to write your measurements in a logbook.

Step 1: Setting the Spread
The spread is the distance between the two oarlock pins. This is a major measurement of your gearing system that will combine with your oar settings to determine the load of your rig. Measure from the center of the top of the pin to the center of the top of the other pin. To make it easier, you may have another person to hold one end of the tape measure for you. Record the number of centimeters.

The range for setting the spread is usually between 158-cm. to 164-cm. An average starting point is 160-cm. If you are a smaller sculler a spread of 158-cm may be appropriate and if you are a larger sculler, 162-cm. may be more comfortable. Moving the spread in creates a heavier load and larger arc through the water. Moving the spread out lightens the load, creating a smaller arc in the water. You need to feel that you are comfortable to open your hands along a horizontal plane well over the gunnels as the blade is prepared for the catch. This happens in conjunction with other factors but setting the spread is the initial consideration.

It is of the utmost importance to make sure that the pins are set an equal distance from the centerline of the boat. Measure across the gunnels of the boat, take half the number of centimeters, and then measure from that point to the pin. For example, if gunnel to gunnel is 46 centimeters, half of 46 is 23, locate the 23-cm. mark on your tape measure, place it on the gunnel nearest the pin you are measuring, and measure the remaining distance to the pin. It should read 57 centimeters if your overall spread is 160 centimeters. (1/2 of 160 cm.=80 cm.) Another method to check if the pins are equidistant is to measure from the outside of the opposite track to the base of the pin and check that both sides are the same. You can use this method because the seat tracks should be set centered in the boat. Once you have finished setting the spread. Measure it again. Do not change your spread casually once you have it set, you can use other adjustments to make smaller gearing changes.

Step 2: Determining Inboard
Setting the inboard on your oars is another rigging step that relates to overall load. The inboard is the measurement that is defined as the distance from the end of the handle to the blade-side face of the collar. The inboard setting is dependent on the overall spread and the amount of overlap of the oar handles or crossover. Take ½ your spread and add 8 centimeters for a good initial setting of your inboard. Thus, if your spread was 160-cm., you inboard setting would be 88 cm. The inboard measurement serves as a way to fine-tune your load as you may move the collar in small increments to affect the load. Moving the collar towards the handle creates a shorter inboard lever and makes the load heavier. Conversely, moving the collar towards the blade, makes the inboard lever longer and lighter. Measurements between 87 to 89 centimeters allow a great deal of adjustment. If you need a setting such as 86 centimeters, you also may need to select a shorter overall length of the oar to avoid an excessively heavy load.

Step 3: Oar Length
The third factor in determining load is the overall length of your oars. Your size, strength, and blade design will affect what length oar you choose to scull with. A shorter oar lightens the load; a longer oar increases the load due to the longer outboard. Outboard is the measurement from the blade-side face of the collar to the tip of the blade. A standard overall length for a Macon blade is 298 centimeters; hatchet-shaped blades- 288 centimeters. A larger heavyweight man may increase these measurements by 1-2 centimeters and a lightweight woman sculler may decrease these measurements by 1-2 centimeters.

Some experimentation is needed in your sculling to set the overall length. Your needs may change as your personal style of sculling develops and you race at higher rates or gain strength. You also may find that you prefer a lighter load if you tend to be quicker and more reactive versus someone who prefers a heavier, power stroke. Remember that spread, inboard, oar length, and personal attributes must all work together. There is no sense to row with excessively heavy loads to impress others. If anything lean towards lighter loads to protect overstressing the lumbar spine.

Step 4: Oarlock Height
When you sit in a boat, the first thing that you usually notice is where the handle height is. If you row club boats, you know that some boat feel "high" and others "low". This can be due both to the size of the boat relative to your weight and to the height set at the oarlock. If you row a hull that is too big for you, you do not sink the boat to the proper water line and you will generally feel too "high" in the boat; as if the oar handles come up to your chest. Rowing with the correct height is a one reason to row the right hull size for your weight. Accurate oarlock height allows you to clear your blade from the water on the recovery and lets you to apply your body weight properly during the drive.

Due to the crossover, in sculling there is a slight height differential between the starboard and port oarlocks of 1- 2 centimeters allowing the sculler to row left over right. This difference in the height setting gives room for the hands to nest together at the crossover and keep the boat level. The differential setting can be a personal setting, as some scullers may like a little more and some a little less. The important point is that the boat stays on keel at the point of crossover.

Standard oarlock height runs between 13 to 18 centimeters and is largely a comfort or stylistic setting. At the finish, sitting with good posture, and blades buried, your thumbs on the handles should just brush your middle ribs at the level of your sternum. You do not want to feel that your handles are in your lap or up near your neck.

To measure height, use a long level placed across the gunnels. Set one end through the center of the oarlock and hang the other end over the seat. Use a tape measure to establish the distance from the bottom edge of the long level, to the bottom of the oarlock, and the top of the seat. Every time you measure height make sure to put your level in the same place and measure to the same point on the seat and oarlock to keep the references consistent.

Sliding the oarlock off the pin and changing the number of washers above and below the pin can usually suffice to change height in most boats. Note: When you purchase a boat ask the builder if the height differential is set in the rigger construction or needs to be set at the oarlock; if you row in a boat with a wing rigger check whether the starboard side of the wing is shimmed higher than the port. Some European clubs row right over left, in which case you need to reverse the standard height differential to raise the port side.

Step 5: Sternward Pitch
Sternward pitch is the angle of the blade away from perpendicular during the pull through of the stroke. A small amount of pitch, 4 to 6 degrees, is enough to help the blade stay buried at the proper depth through the water. If a blade has too much pitch, more than 7 degrees, the blade will wash out at the finish; too little pitch, less than 4 degrees, causes the blade too dive deep. Sternward pitch is a fore-and-aft measurement usually taken at the oarlock but it must be kept in mind that it is the angle of the blade that we are concerned with, so knowing the pitch of the pins and the oars has to be taken into final consideration. The pitch of the blade = the pitch of the pin + the pitch of the oarlock + the pitch built into the blade.

Measuring the pitch will begin with checking the pin. Ideally, if the pin is set at 0 degrees it makes it easy to calculate your oarlock pitch. Unless you check it you don't know what the reference is. A commercially available pitch meter or a simple level can be used. With your boat set up level in slings, slide the oarlock off taking care to count the washers setting the height. Place a vertical level against the sternward face of the pin and see if it zeros out. If it does the pin is at 0 degrees, if not, you may be able to shim your pin to get it to 0 degrees, otherwise use your pitch meter to determine how many degrees you are +/- 0.

Adjust your pitch meter on a level portion of the gunnel. Put the pointer on 0 and then center the bubble on the level. Tighten the level so it is firmly in place. Place the squared surface of the pitch meter against the face of the pin and move the pointer until the level's bubble is centered. Record the number of degrees the pointer reads in that pin.

Next, put the round pitch inserts into your oarlock with the number of degrees you want and check that the top and bottom shims are in the right orientation (read your oarlock owner's manual). Slide the oarlock back on the pin. For example: If your pin is at 0 degrees and you want +5 degrees put in the +5-degree shim. However, if your pin is +1 degree you need a +4-degree shim to give your oarlock +5.

Once you have put the oarlock back on the pin and secured the top bolt, measure the pitch in the oarlock. Hold the oarlock at the mid-drive position (with the gate closed and nut pointing towards the stern) parallel to the midline of the boat. Zero your pitch meter and then place the squared surface of the pitch meter against the back plate of the oarlock. A spring clamp can be handy for this. Make sure the surfaces are flush to get an accurate reading. Your measurement should agree with the sum of the degrees in the pin + the inserts. If not, try again until you get the desired degrees. 5 degrees is the most common setting, 6 may give you a little more bite at the catch and 4 a little less lift to the boat at the catch. Whatever amount of pitch you choose, make sure that both sides are the same.

Sliding the oarlock off the pin and changing the number of washers above and below the pin can usually suffice to change height in most boats. Note: When you purchase a boat ask the builder if the height differential is set in the rigger construction or needs to be set at the oarlock; if you row in a boat with a wing rigger check whether the starboard side of the wing is shimmed higher than the port. Some European clubs row right over left, in which case you need to reverse the standard height differential to raise the port side.

Reminder: Approaching rigging in an orderly, systematic way will make it easier for you to detect problems and make adjustments accordingly. If you are rigging your boat for the first time, get all your measurements within a reasonable range. Once the boat is rigged, then make only one change at a time so you can assess the effect. Remember to write your measurements in a logbook.

Step 6: Outward Pitch
Outward or lateral pitch is the tilt of the pin away from the centerline of the hull. The standard 0 to +2 degrees assists the tracking of the blade in the water. You can measure it by placing your pitch meter on the lateral aspect of the pin and measuring. You can also see the effect of lateral pitch in the oarlock. With the pitch meter in place against the back plate of the oarlock, check your reading of degrees at mid-drive, swing the oarlock to the catch position and you should see the sternward pitch increase. Then swing the oarlock to the finish and you should see the degrees diminish to assist the release of the blade. Your readings should look like: catch +6 degrees, mid-drive +5, and finish +4. If you have the inverse relationship, your pins could have negative lateral pitch and require creative shimming to rectify.

Step 7: Pitch in Oars
In North America, the majority of oars are built with 0 degrees of pitch, meaning that the position of the blade is level with the wear plate surface on the sleeve. If you row with unknown or wooden oars you may have to measure your oars at the blade to determine if there is pitch built into the blades and take those degrees into consideration when setting the pitch at the oarlock. You can do this by setting your oar on a bench with a level block as wide as the blade supporting the blade and another support block under the handle. Place the blade face down on the block with 1" of the tip off the edge of the block if you are measuring a Macon blade or with the short side corner radius of the blade just off the edge of the block for hatchet-shaped blades. The put your level across the wear plate surface to see whether it is at 0 degrees. Shimming to get the level zeroed, Concept 2Ò recommends that .025" equals approximately 1 degree of pitch. If it is necessary to measure your oars check with your manufacturer for specific instructions because there are variations depending on blade type.

Step 8: Foot Stretcher Adjustment
The foot stretcher adjustment should be placed so that you are both able to get up through the pin at the catch and have about the width of a fist between the handles at the release comfortably in front of your body. You need to avoid feeling crowded by your oar handles at the release forcing unnecessary lay back and yet not have excessive room to allow the handles to swing past the plane of the body, thus losing the weight off the handles.

Step 9: Heel Height
Heel height is another measurement that can facilitate easier compression into the catch. The standard range is 16 to 18 centimeters from the top of the seat to the bottom of the heels. Many boats have adjustable footboards making this easy to change. If you boat has clogs, you may be able to re-drill and lower the heel cups to get a better setting.Step 10: Rake of the Footboard
The angle of the footboard can be measured with a protractor or a goniometer (like those used in physical therapy clinics). Standard measurements should fall between 39 to 42 degrees. If you have poor ankle flexibility, it may be necessary to flatten the footboard to get into a more comfortable position at the catch. If you have good flexibility, 40 to 42 degrees is a desired setting to assist the leg drive in using the entire surface of the foot. Many performance boats have this adjustable feature, otherwise you will have to reposition the footboard and its attachments.

Step 11: Setting the Tracks
Once you have set your rigging dimensions and foot stretchers, you need to set the seat track so you do not touch either end and have freedom of seat movement. Most tracks are quite long giving lots of room for adjustability. Reaching inside the hull and loosening the small wing nuts that hold the track usually allow you to move the tracks. Do not take the wing nuts off; just loosen enough to slide the tracks fore-and-aft. Set the front stops to the stern of the pin far enough to allow you to get up through the pin in full compression but not so far as to hit the back of your calves in an uncomfortable way. If your boat does not have adjustable tracks you must do your best to get the best possible position within the dimensions available to you.

Step 12: Wing Rigger Adjustments
Boats with wing riggers offer some additional adjustability with regards to getting through the pin, setting height differential, and overall oarlock height if the amount available on the pin is not enough. Some care needs to be taken to position the wing in a way that maintains the trim of the boat and does not shift weight too far to either to the stern or bow. Your boat builder is the best person to discuss the rigging of the wing of a particular type of hull.

Learning about your boat is an important way to develop understanding of the technical side of sculling and can be fun. Rigging should be done with care and once you arrive at a good general rig that works for you spend time rowing it before you begin to make too many readjustments. When you need to make changes only do one thing at a time so you can observe the effect of the change. Rigging supports your ability to row with good technique; it is not a substitute for it.

Rigging Your Single: Detecting Problems
Once you have your boat rigged you should feel comfortable rowing it. No matter how careful you are with your boat, adjustments do get bumped or moved occasionally. Here are some signs of rigging defects:
-If your blade dives deep in the water, check that you are not under pitched at the oarlock.
-If your blade is washing out of the water, check that you are not over-pitched at the oarlock.
-If the blade does not feel stable in the water, check your lateral pitch measurement.
-If you do not feel you can get your body-weight on at the catch without lifting, you may be rigged too low.
-If your hands are down in your lap at the release or you cannot adequately clear the water, you may be rigged too low.
-If you cannot get your hips in line with the pin at the catch you may need to move your foot stretchers and tracks sternward or lower the heels of your shoes.
-If the load feels too heavy, you may need to increase the span, increase the inboard of the oar, or decrease the oar length.
-If the bow or stern are diving in the water during the stroke, you may have to adjust the trim of the boat or the wing setting to center your weight in the boat. the boat also could be too small for you.
-If you cannot get your heels down on the footboard during the drive, the rake of the footboard may be too steep.

These are just a few examples of rigging abnormalities you may detect. When rigged well the oars and boat should handle in an easy, balanced way.

Learning To Row

Competency in Seven Lessons
Original Idea from Rowing by W Fritsch pp 49-72. Expanded by J. Croly
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What a coach should do when teaching beginners:

Provide a variety of boats - The beginners should gain experience in the variety of boats available not just the single.

Demonstrate the movements – A correct idea of the movements, combined with the knowledge of their purpose is important to the beginning rower. Direct feedback is important but should be supplemented by videos and pictures.

Teach complete movement sequences – Rowing should always be taught as a cyclical movement sequence and not in separate, part movements. The explanation of the movement should always contain a few words about their function or intention.

Provide movement tasks – exercises or goals should be set to complement every learning step or element of movement sequences

Organization –
· Take into consideration the water conditions when deciding how many individuals each coach can manage.
· Have a lesson planned before each outing
· Make sure equipment is rowable and safe (bowballs, heelstraps, hatch covers)
· Try to make equipment as appropriate as possible for beginners – size of boat, shorter inboards etc.

The Basics
There are seven steps in learning to row, which build in each other and the mastery of which is necessary for all areas of rowing.

IN ALL OF THESE LESSONS THE BEST WAY TO TEACH IS IN FOUR STEPS

1. EXPLAIN
a. Use correct terminology
b. Keep the explanation short and simple
2. DEMONSTRATE
a. Try not to explain and talk at the same time
3. ALLOW THE ATHLETE TO TRY
4. PROVIDE FEEDBACK
a. On correctness of movement
b. On things to do to improve
c. Do not be too critical. Focus on what will make the biggest improvement

1. Familiarization with and Handling of Equipment

Begin with a tour of the boathouse pointing out:
-Types of boats,
-Types of oars,
-How boats are stored i.e. bows towards water,
-Where safety equipment is – first aid, emergency contact numbers etc

Put a boat on trestles in order to illustrate the function and use of individual parts. Keep this simple at first – too much will overload the beginner
Terminology
ALL BOATS
Slide
Stretcher
Rigger
Gate
Oars
Handle
Button
Spoon
CREW BOATS
Rudder
Rudder post
Rudder lines
Rudder handles

o Explain and demonstrate where and how to put the oars by the jetties
§ Out of the way of where boats are carried
§ Tips curved up to prevent damage to tip

o How to carry a boat – where to stand
§ Consider heights of crew members to carry boat
§ Consider if boat has backstays
§ Difference between sweep (opposite rigger) and sculling (at ends of boat)
Terminology
Bow
Stern
Hull
Saxboard
Rack

How to put a boat into the water
Always into water on side wind is blowing to.

How to take a boat out of the water
Always land on side wind is coming from.
Terminology
Fin

How to put the oars in the gates – different sides
Explain and demonstrate how to open gate and put oar into oarlock.
Terminology
Bowside (green)
Strokeside (red)

How to get into the boat
Where to step
Where the slide should be when stepping
How to hold the boat whilst stepping in

How to correctly grip the oars
Handle held in fingers not palms
Thumbs on the end of the handles in sculling

How to adjust the stretcher for correct body position
Sitting with legs over sides of the boat with the handles held together between chest and thighs
How to undo wing nuts and move stretcher

Terminology
Inboard
Stretcher/Footboard
Wingnut
T-Bolt
Rowing Commands – Used to Maneuver the Boat
§ On To Water
§ Hands on. Are you ready? Lift & slide out
§ 1 & 3 under. Lifting off the rack. GO!
§ Walk stern/bow towards/away from the water

§ One hand across, Lifting above heads, GO!
§ Sides from the front, Shoulders GO!

§ One hand across, Lifting above heads, GO!
§ Rolling to waists, GO!
§ One hand in one hand under, one foot on the edge
§ Lowering together, GO!

§ 1 & 3 hold, 2 & 4 fetch the blades
§ Tie in the Strokeside/ Bowside blades
§ 1 & 3 hold, 2 & 4 step
§ Tie in Bowside/ Strokeside blades
§ Other side in
§ Pushing off together, GO!

§ Tie in and number off from bow when ready

§ Off Of Water
§ 1 & 3 hold, 2 & 4 untie blades away from jetty and step out
§ 2 & 4 hold, 1 & 3 untie blades away from jetty and step out
§ Undo jetty side blades

§ 2 & 4 hold, 1 & 3 take blades off the jetty

§ One hand in one hand under
§ Lifting together, GO!
§ Left/right hand across
§ Rolling above heads, GO!
§ Take sides from the front
§ Lowering to shoulders, GO!

§ Waists GO!
§ Shoulders GO!
§ Ankles GO!

§ Lifting and Sliding (onto rack)

2. Ensuring Proper Balance

Safety Position
Sitting with the spoons flat on the water, with the legs stretched out and the oar handles held over the knees
Check the spoons are flat on the water
Handles held at same height

Terminology
Handles
Inboard
Squared blades
Feathered blade

Changing the balance of the boat
Moving one oar and then the next up and down
Pressing both oars into down to let the spoons rise off the water
Check are the gates closed?
Is the boat away from other craft?

Using the oars to ensure the balance of the boats
Holding the handles together and moving the body from side to side
Holding the handles together and have somebody else try to influence the balance of the boat.
Exercises and Games

Lay the blades on the water, hold the oar handles tightly above your thighs and try to make the boat rock by swinging your body to and fro
Do this again and try to let go of the oars for a moment
Slowly move one hand up and down to see how it affects the balance of the boat
Turn the oars into a horizontal position, press both the inboards into the boat and rock your upper body from side to side

3. Rowing in a Forward Direction

The free-floating oar can now be positioned vertically (squared) and drawn to one side gently towards the rowers body.
Correct grip
When squaring the oar only the fingers should wrap around the handle.
The inner surfaces (palm) of the hand do not touch the handle and the wrist remains straight.
The surfaces of the hand and lower arms form a straight line.

Feel the correct position of the blade in the water.
The hand doing the rowing is always above the hand resting on the thigh.
The seat is not used.
Terminology
Square
Feather
Finish
Catch


Alternate with left and right hands

Teach the rising and lowering of the handles to extract and immerse the spoon.

Lengthen the slide

Terminology
Frontstops
Backstops
Stroke

Check left hand is in front of and above the right hand.
Knuckles of the right hand in the palm of the left hand
Show how the direction of the boat can be influenced by different pressures on the oars

Exercises and Games

Close your eyes and square and feather the blade several times
Are the grip and position of the blade still correct
Rowing with squared blade
By yourself
In pairs
All together
In pairs with one oar squared and the other feathered
Row five strokes harder on bow, change sides
When is the best time to look around and check you are on course?
Who has to look around the least when making your way to a fixed point?
Keeping on course
Traffic Rules
Who can row right/left in a circle?
Take five strokes with bowside/stroke side alternately
Rowing Commands – Used to Maneuver the Boat

Backstops, Are your ready? Row!
A little harder on stroke/bowside
On the next stroke, Easy!
Blades on the water
Safety Position
Hold it all lightly
Hold it all hard
Hold it on stroke/bow

4. Maneuvering the Boat

Teach backing down
Start with hands only then lengthen the slide
Terminology
Frontstops
Backstops
Stroke
Hold water

Teach how to turn the skiff by alternately backing and touching
Both at the same time = sculling turn

Use games and competitions to practice these skills
Exercises and Games

Back it down towards and objective
Three strokes forwards on bow, three strokes back on stroke
One back, one forwards on alternative sides
Complete turns to stroke and bow
Who can turn 180 or 360 fastest? (both sides)
Who turned 360 three times the fastest? (both sides)
Combination exercises: crew or sculler back it down to an objective, performs a 360 turn and rows on forwards to another objective
Traffic Rules
Land on a jetty from various directions
Wind direction assists
Reducing speed using the oars (holding water)
Who can stop closest to a line or the landing stage
How do elites land the boat?

Rowing Commands – Used to Maneuver the Boat

Back on stroke/bow
Touch on stroke/bow
Whole crew backing/touching together
Hold on stroke/bow, touch on stroke/bow

5. Overcoming difficult situations

Rowers must anticipate and practice difficult situations
Sculling test
Handles together
Seat at bow end of slide
Flying – blades feathered in the air coming forward
Are the blades being taken out of the water correctly?
Is the speed sufficient for balance?
Rowing in waves
Feathering high
Blades up and away
Standing up in the boat
How to deal with large waves/motorboat wash from different directions
Has the crew assumed the safety position
Distance between the boat and other craft on the water
Distance between the boat and bank
Is the boat parellel to the waves
Changing places in a crew boat
Safety position of those in the boat
Do not step on the bottom of the boat

§ Exercises and Games

Who can row three strokes forward and then let the boatrun with blades feathered off the water?
Who can "fly" the longest distance?
Who can stand up in the boat?
Who can let go of the inboards whilst standing?
Who can lie down in the boat?
Who can turn around whilst standing in the boat?
Slalom course: row forwards, through buoys, do 180 turns, row backwards to an objective, reduce speed, pick an object out of the water, throw a ball into a bucket etc
Perform orienteering exercises on short excursions

6. Steering

All members should take turn leading a crew by being the cox
Using the right commands to organize the crew
Does everybody understand them?
Are the commands appropriate for the situation?
Steer a boat to a given destination

Principles of steering
Steering is a loss of speed
The rudder should be applied gently and at a gentle angle
Is the rudder at to sharp an angle?
Can the cox steer to an objective?
The boat must be kept parallel to waves and rowers must assume the safety position until the waves have past
Awareness of motorboat wash
Boat should come to the jetty with the wind in order to be blown onto the jetty and push off with wind in order to be blown off the jetty
Exercises and Games

Carry out steering maneuvers using rowing commands without using the rudder
Steering towards a specific objective without a rudder
Leading a crew from the boathouse onto the water, carry out a training session and then return the crew to the boathouse

7. Introduction to Various Areas of Rowing

Regattas
How to read a regatta program
Start procedures
2 minute rule
ID cards
Venue traffic rules

Ergometers
Setting Performance Displays
Drag levers

Training
What days are water practices on?
What days are land training on?
What can be done in the rower’s own time to improve?

Work Hard + Recover Well

Work Hard + Recover Well = Best Performance Training – Methodological Consideration
By Prof. Dr. Jan Bourgois, Centre of Sports Medicine and Dept. Rehabilitation Sciences and Physiotherapy, Ghent University Hospital and Ghent University, Belgium
From FISA Youth Commission, FISA
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Introduction
Training sessions are designed to bring about improvements in athletic performance. This is achieved in part through overloading the body systems. A potential problem with modern sports is that the increasing importance and international prestige associated with elite performance may pressure athletes to train harder and harder to an extent that they are more likely to develop overuse injuries, traumatic injuries, disease susceptibility (immunosuppression), over-reaching, chronic fatigue and overtraining (Fry et al., 1992a,b).

Exposing the athlete to levels of exercise stress that are slightly greater than those he or she has previously encountered within the training program has been termed overload training (Fry et al., 1992b). In order for athletes to adapt to the overload training stimuli, the training programme must allow adequate rest, and large immediate increments in the degree of stress imposed must be avoided. Otherwise the athlete may enter an overtrained state characterized by fatigue and non- recovery from training sessions. A well-planned training programme may be the key to preventing overtraining, as it provides a system for including overload training within exercise tolerance levels and regeneration periods in proportions that will optimize training improvements and avoid overtraining (Fry et al., 1992a,b).

The purpose of this overview is to summarize the literature in the hopes of providing a solid framework for developing training programmes which must suffice until scientists can affirm or refute the ideas presented.

Fatigue from voluntary motor activity
Fatigue can be defined physiologically as the inability to maintain power output. To an athlete, fatigue is the insuperable need to reduce pace. The factors that contribute to fatigue from voluntary activity are numerous and interact in a complex multifactorial phenomenon.

Virtually every step in the chain of events that leads to muscular contraction has been studied under a variety of circumstances. The lack of a single factor inducing fatigue across the gamut of sporting activities points to the multitude of mechanisms that protect muscle from a relentless progression toward irreversible rigor (Kirkendall, 2000).

An underlying tenet in the exercise sciences is the concept of specificity. A specific type of training results in a specific type of physiologic response that, if performed repeatedly, will lead to a specific adaptation. The concept of specificity must also be extended to include fatigue: specific exercise also leads to a specific mechanism of fatigue.
The various mechanisms of fatigue in relation to voluntary activity can be summarized as follow: (1) central fatigue (neurotransmitters, nutritional aspects, choline/acetylcholine, brain dopamine, cytokines, ammonia) , (2) peripheral fatigue (neuromuscular junction, sarcolemma, excitation-contraction coupling), and (3) metabolic fatigue (exhaustion hypothesis of ATP, CP and glycogen; accumulation hypothesis of hydrogen ions, inorganic phosphate and ammonia) (Kirkendall, 2000; Wilmore & Costill, 1994).

Modelling training
The evolution of modern training methodology in both individual and team sports has been largely based on the periodisation of training volume and intensity. Despite this notion, here is no common theory of training processes that describes the type, the quantity, or pattern of a certain stimulus or a particular training program , which is necessary to achieve a given performance response for an athlete. The main knowledge is basically empiric (Steinacker et al., 1998).

However, in most endurance sports there is a consensus that training and performance are related by a dose-response relationship. Structural and functional adaptations in organs and muscles are the result of an optimal interaction between work and recovery. Improvements in performance are primarily achieved through a sequential increase in the volume and intensity of training, with a concomitant need for increased recovery and regeneration. In conceptual terms, the training stimulus can be considered as a combination of the positive (fitness) and negative (fatigue) influences of training on performance. An imbalance between training loads and recovery is a major contributor to the onset of fatigue, illness and overtraining in highly trained athletes (Morton, 1997).

Recovery
Recovery is that part of the training process where the benefits of training are maximized through practices which encourage natural adaptation to the training stimulus. Training hard and training smart are not always synonymous. Recovery is one of the basic principles of training, but is one of the most frequently forgotten in training programmes (Calders, 1996).

Recovery can be seen from two points of views: (1) training intervention strategies, and (2) behavioural and self-management strategies.

Training intervention strategies
The major factor influencing athletic performance is still training. Athletic performance improves as the athlete adapts to progressively increasing training loads. This structural and functional adaptations occur after training or during periods of reduced training, termed recovery or regeneration. It is essential that adequate recovery time be included in training programmes so that adaptations can be achieved. Different training methodological means are available to realize an optimal interaction between work and recovery. Numerous coaches and sports scientists have emphasized the benefits to athletes in planning and structuring training programmes in accordance with the principles of training (Individuality, Specificity, Disuse and Overload) (Wilmore & Costill, 1994).

Overcompensation
Adaptation to the training stimulus or workload is evidenced by improved performances. Positive adaptation to a training stimulus is referred to as overcompensation or supercompensation. If there is sufficient recovery before the next workload, the underlying system or fuel store stressed during training can improve its capacity to cope with the next stressor (Calders, 1996).

Planning and periodisation
Planning training (athlete’s career, quadrennial plan, annual plan), in a well-organized methodological and scientific manner, is perhaps the most important tool in assisting an athlete to achieve success. The long-term training process must adequately prepare the athlete in all aspects of elite performance in his/her specific event. Systematic planning of athletic training has become known as periodisation (Rowbottom, 2000). Periodisation of training is the process that devides a complete training into distinct, smaller periods of training [(a) training units (individual training sessions), (b) microcycle (1-week blocks of training), (c) mesocycle (3-6-week block of training), (d) macrocycle (preparation, competition, and transition)] of more manageable size, each with specific performance or development targets (Fry et al., 1992a). Periodisation of training is the process that has the potential, if used correctly, to assist coaches and athletes to optimise performance while minimizing the risk of overtraining.

Taper
Empirical observations and studies investigating fluctuations in performance indicate that
structural and functional adaptations of organs and muscles occur during periods of reduced training, termed taper. Taper can be defined as the reduction of the amount of training during a variable period of time before the main competitions. The main goal during taper periods is to maintain the physiologic adaptations achieved during intensive training, while the negative impact of training resolves (Mujika, 1999).

Cross-training
Cross-training can be defined as: (1) the participation in an alternative training mode exclusive to the one normally used (i.e. not task – or sport specific); or (2) combining an alternative training mode with task-specific training. Both types of cross training are practised, with the intent of deriving a physiological and performance benefit similar to or better than exclusive sport-specific training. Cross-training has been recommended as an adjunct to sport-specific training for athletes wishing to improve performance or reduce the risk of injury, illness or overtraining.

For performance and aerobic benefits, cross-training with dissimilar modes would be effective for participants with lower aerobic capacity. The more highly trained individuals will profit more from similar-mode cross training (Loy et al. 1995).

Behavioural and self-management strategies
Adaptation to training is accelerated when fatigued functions are restored to normal operational levels as quickly as possible after training. Planning appropriate recovery activities as part of the training programme accelerates adaptation to the training stimuli by reducing the time it takes for an athlete to reach the overcompensated state (Calders, 996).

Daily monitoring of training and testing
Encourage athletes to maintain a daily training log to record training activities and loads, physiological responses, well-being and healthy status. Implementation in the planning of a regular program of performance, physiological and psychometric testing can help to avoid injury, illness and overtraining.

Personal hygiene and nutrition
Reinforce strict personal hygiene practices. Review dietary practices (fluid and fuel for recovery) and educate athletes on issues specific to training and competition. Adopt a balanced diet of macro- and micro-nutrients.

Recovery practices and sleep
Incorporate sufficient rest and recovery into training programs. Explore the full range of recovery practices including active and passive recovery, massage, and therapeutic support. Organize quiet and comfortable sleeping quarters. Allow time for adjustment to jet lag.

Summary
One of the basic principles of training adaptation is that performance improvements are achieved by progressive increases in the training stimulus. Unfortunately, many athletes may be prone to training excessively and incorporating insufficient recovery periods into their training programmes. Finding a balance in training programmes so that the best performance can be realized without the athlete breaking down has often been difficult because many athletes and coaches are unaware of the role and benefits of recovery. Training intervention strategies (overcompensation, planning and periodisation, taper, cross-training) and behavioural and self-management strategies (daily training log, physiological and psychometric testing, personal hygiene, nutrition, recovery practices and sleep) can be used to assist coaches and athletes to optimise athletic performance while minimizing the very real risk of injuries, illness or overtraining.

References
Calders, A. (1996). Recovery in training and competition. Australian Institute of Sport, PO Box 176, Belconnen, ACT, Australia 2616: 1-28.
Fry, R.W., Morton, A.R., Keast D. (1992a). Periodisation of Training Stress – R Review. Can. J. Spt. Sci. 17:3: 234-240.
Fry, R.W., Morton, A.R., Keast, D. (1992b). Periodisation and Prevention of Overtraining. Can. J. Spt. Sci. 17:3; 241-248.
Kirkendall, D.T. (2000). Fatigue from voluntary motor activity. In: Exercise and Sport Science (Edited by William E. Garrett, Jr., and Donald T. Kirkendall). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, Chapter 7: 97 – 104.
Loy, S.F., Hoffmann, J.J., Holland G.J. (1995). Benefits and practical use of cross-training in sports. Sports Med. 19 (1):1-8.
Mujika, I. (1998). The influence of training characteristics and tapering on the adaptation in highly trained individuals: a review. Int. J. Sports Med. 19: 439-446.
Morton, R.H. (1997). Modelling training and overtraining. J. Sports Sci. 15; 335-340
Steinacker, J.M., Lormes, W., Lehmann, M., Altenburg, D. (1998). Training of rowers before world championships. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 30; 7: 1158-1163.
Rowbottom, D.G. (2000). Periodization of training. In: Exercise and Sport Science (Edited by William E. Garrett, Jr., and Donald T. Kirkendall). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, Chapter 34: 499-512.
Wilmore, J.H., Costill, D.L. (1994). Physiology of sport and exercise. Human Kinetics.

Jet Lag: Symptoms & Treatment

Jet Lag: Symptoms & Treatment
BY Reilly, T. (1998). Travel: Physiology, jet-lag, strategies. In: Encyclopedia of Sports Medicine and Science, T.D.Fahey (Editor).
From Internet Society for Sport Science: http://www.sportsci.org. 12 July 1998
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Symptoms
The feelings of disorientation encountered as a result of crossing time zones are known as jet lag. Symptoms include fatigue and general tiredness, inability to sleep at night, loss of concentration, loss of drive, headaches and general malaise. Jet-lag occurs when biological rhythms are disrupted as a result of rapid transitions across multiple time-zones. Such desynchronization of rhythms also occurs in nocturnal shift work employees who transfer to night shifts.

A classical rhythm is represented by a sine wave, fluctuations occurring cyclically about a mean value rising to a peak and half a cycle later dropping to a trough. Twenty-four hour rhythms are known as circadian (about a day). An example of a biological rhythm is core temperature. We can find the characteristics of rhythms using the mathematical technique of cosinor analysis to determine the mean, the peak, the amplitude, and the time the peak occurs (the acrophase).

Circadian Desynchronization
Following a journey across multiple time zones the body's rhythms at first retain the characteristics of their point of departure. However, the new environment forces new influences on these cycles, the main factors being the time of sunrise and onset of darkness. The body attempts to adjust to this new context but core temperature is relatively sluggish in doing so. As a rough guide it takes about one day for each time zone crossed for body temperature to adapt completely. The individual may have difficulty in sleeping for a few days, but activity and social contact during the day help in accelerating the adaptations of the arousal rhythm. Thus arousal adjusts more quickly than does body temperature to the new time zone. Until the whole spectrum of biological rhythms adjusts to the new local time, the performance of exercise may be below par.

Allowing for individual differences, the severity of jet lag is affected by a variety of factors. In general, the greater the number of time zones crossed, the more difficult it is to cope. A 2-hour phase shift may have marginal significance but a 3-hour shift (e.g. British or Irish teams traveling to play European football matches in Russia or Turkey or a Californian sports team traveling to play on the east coast of the US) will entail desynchronization to a substantial degree. In such cases the flight times time of departure and time of arrival - may determine the severity of symptoms.

The severity of symptoms may be worse 2-3 days after arrival than on the day immediately following disembarkation. Symptoms then gradually abate, but can still be acute at particular times of day. There will be a window of time during the day when the period of high arousal associated with the time zone just left overlaps with the arousal high point at the new local time. This window may be predicted in advance and should be utilized for timing of training practices in the first few days at destination. Our observations on footballers traveling from Britain to the South Pacific indicate that morning training sessions suit players best over the first few days.

Such a practice has also proved successful for cross-country runners. The direction of travel affects the severity of jet lag. It is easier to cope with flying in a westward direction compared to flying eastward. In flying westward the normal cycle is temporarily lengthened and body rhythms can extend in line with their natural freewheeling period of about 27 hours and thus catch up. Observations on traveling to Korea (9 hours in advance of British Summer time) and Malaysia (7 hours in advance of British Summer time) are that periods of 9 and 6 days respectively may be inadequate for jet lag symptoms to disappear. In contrast re-adaptation is more rapid on returning to Britain. When time zone shifts approach the maximum 12-hour change, there may be little difference between eastward and westward travel. The direction of travel can be a relevant consideration when going from coast to coast to compete in North America. When going eastward the mean performance is depressed more and the peak performance declines more dramatically than is the case on traveling westward. The reason for westward travel being easier is because the natural period of circadian rhythms is greater than 24 hours, so each rhythm adapts more quickly when the day is artificially lengthened. Altering training times for a few days prior to travel to take into consideration the time of competition in another time zone is known to be beneficial.

Young individuals have a better tolerance to desynchronization of rhythms, owing to a better regulation of biological clocks. Physical fitness also seems to play a role: active subjects demonstrate higher amplitudes in existing rhythms than age-matched controls, a difference indicative of superior regulation. But other than these factors, there has been little success in attempting to predict good and poor adapters to long haul flights. Furthermore, the fact that an individual escapes lightly from symptoms on one occasion is no guarantee that he or she will do so again on the next visit.

Reducing Jet Lag
Scheduling Travel
If it is possible to do so, flights should be scheduled so that athletes arrive well in advance of competition. One day for each time zone crossed does leave a cushion of safety, even traveling eastward. The time for adaptation may be shortened by exploiting the external factors that reset biological clocks: rest/exercise, darkness/ light, meals and social influences. The key is to tune in straight away to the external influences of the new environment.

It may be beneficial to shop around to find the most convenient travel schedules. Consider departure from regional airports if appropriate and also alternative carriers. The routines prior to departure, on the plane, and after arrival, can be planned once the itinerary is established. In consequence coping with jet lag will not be the hit or miss affair it might otherwise be.

Before and During Travel
On lengthy journeys it is unlikely that any maneuvers will eliminate jet lag, but with careful planning the symptoms can be attenuated. In the week prior to departure it may be possible to adjust the time of arising and going to bed, the adjustment depending on the direction of flight. An alteration of more than two hours is likely to be unproductive, since this would interfere with the pattern of social and domestic engagements during the day. Besides, the major synchronizer of human circadian rhythms--natural daylight--remains unaltered.

The evidence from simply altering time of retiring to sleep is that shifting the sleepwake cycle does alter rhythms in accord with the direction of the shift, but motor performance is compromised during the course of such adaptive changes.

Manipulating the sleep-wakefulness rhythm prior to traveling abroad to compete therefore may not be the best strategy. Once flight times are known, a routine on the plane may be planned. In day time flights it will be necessary to stay awake, keep mentally active and perhaps watch the in-flight movie. On long haul flights that entail traveling during the night it will be necessary to get some sleep on the plane. The timing of this should be decided in advance so that some meals on board can be missed. Transit or transfer episodes en route should be taken into consideration. It is a good strategy to set one's watch to local time at the next point of landing, once on board the plane: in a single haul flight this would be the local time of the country of destination. The important thing is that the traveler mentally tunes in to the new local time straight away and adjusts behavior accordingly.

To compensate for the dry air on board flight, copious rehydration is advised. Fruit juices are best, fizzy drinks should be avoided. Alcohol should not be taken, since it acts as a diuretic (increases urine production) and also affects the normal circadian rhythm in renal function. Caffeine in coffee also stimulates water loss, and its arousal effect on the central nervous system means it should not be taken if sleep is desired.

One suggestion is that the last meal prior to the time allotted for sleep should be high in carbohydrates and low in protein in order to induce drowsiness. Carbohydrates provide the substrate for serotonin, a neurotransmitter that regulates sleep. Caffeine and a low-carbohydrate high-protein breakfast would help raise the level of arousal and prevent a relapse into sleep.

Athletes may feel stiff or cramped because of their restrained posture on board flight. They can perform isometric exercises for arms, trunk or legs while in their seats. It is even better to walk down the aisle of the plane and occasionally do flexibility or stretching exercises at the back of the plane.

British sports teams traveling to Australia have used sleeping pills to induce sleep while on board. Although such drugs as benzodiazepines are effective in getting people to sleep, they do not guarantee a prolonged period asleep. Besides, they have not been satisfactorily tested for subsequent residual effects on motor performances such as sports skills. They may also be counter-productive if administered at the incorrect time. A prolonged nap at the time the individual feels drowsy (presumably at the time that he or she would have been asleep in the time zone departed from) simply anchors the rhythms at their former phases and so resists the adaptations to the new
time zone.

Strategy upon Arrival
On reaching the country of destination a key factor is to fit in immediately with the phase characteristics of the new environment. Athletes should already have worked out the local time for their disembarkation. There may be other environmental factors to consider such as heat, humidity or even altitude. Having traveled westward, players may be allowed to retire to bed early. Early onset of sleep will be less likely after an eastward flight. In this case a light training session on that evening would be helpful in instilling local cues into the rhythms. Besides, there is some evidence that exercise does speed up the adaptation to a new time zone. For the first few days in the new time zone, training sessions should not be all-out efforts. Skills requiring fine co-ordination are likely to be impaired and this might lead to accidents or injuries if, for example, games players conducted sessions with the ball too strenuously. Where a series of tournament engagements is scheduled, it is useful to have at least one friendly match during the initial period (before the end of the first week) in the overseas country.

In this period of adaptation a few caveats are noted. Alcohol taken late in the evening is likely to disrupt sleep and so is not advised. The alternation of feasting and fasting recommended for commercial travelers in the USA is unlikely to gain acceptance among footballers. Nevertheless they could benefit from biasing the macronutrients in their evening meal largely towards carbohydrates. These would include vegetables with a choice of chipped, roast or baked potatoes, pasta dishes, rice and bread. These should include sufficient fiber to safeguard against constipation.

In the early days in the new country athletes should be discouraged from taking prolonged naps. A nap at the time they would have been asleep had they stayed at home would make subsequent sleep more difficult and retard the adjustment of the major biological clocks to the new regimens. Exposure to bright light, preferably natural daylight, is a useful antidote to drowsiness in such circumstances.

Taking drugs can alter biological clocks, depending on the time they are taken. Caffeine (in coffee) and theophylline (in tea) are stimulantsm of the central nervous system. Taken in the evening they would help in recovery after flying eastward and in the afternoon after flying westward. The minor tranquilizers, benzodiaepines, affect neurotransmitters that have a role in arousal. These include serotonin, noradrenaline, acetylcholine and gamma- aminobutyric acid (GABA). As already indicated, they are effective in inducing sleep but not necessarily good in ensuring the state of sleep. Also hangover effects cannot be excluded, even in some so-called short-acting hypnotics.

Administration of melatonin, which is a pineal gland hormone, has shown good results in treating Scandinavian patients suffering depression in the winter. This clinical condition is known as seasonal affective disorder. The lack of stimulus from natural light for the pineal gland to secrete melatonin is a recognized cause of this entity. Prolonged exposure to bright artificial light has also proved effective in those patients. Subjects who took melatonin tablets on a trip from Britain to Australia experienced a reduction in jet-lag symptoms, improvements in sleep quality, and a faster readjustment of cortisol and melatonin rhythms.

These findings received further support from results of a simulated eastward flight across nine time zones. It seems that administration of melatonin in the afternoon or evening causes phase advances of circadian rhythms whereas a phase delay (required after a westward flight) results from administration at night or early morning. However, toxic side-effects of this substance cannot be discounted and besides, it is not yet readily available in tablet form.

There is also a suggestion that the amino acid tryptophan is helpful in coping with jetlag. It is a precursor of the sleep hormones, but there is no evidence that it improves the quality of sleep. Besides, it has achieved bad publicity in the early 1990s due to impurities being found in commercially available products and its use is no longer recommended.

It is more effective to use light or behavioral measures to resynchronize circadian rhythms. Natural daylight and bright artificial light help to increase or maintain arousal as well as contribute to returning endogenous rhythms. For athletes exercise is a powerful resynchronizor. It stimulates catecholamines and alertness. It is recommended, even on the day of arrival, except late in the evening local time.

Exercise at a light intensity is adequate for stimulating resynchronization of rhythmic
characteristics as exercise that is too strenuous may disrupt rather than promote sleep.

References
1. de Looy, A.E., D.S. Minors, J. Waterhouse, T. Reilly and D. Tunstall-Pedoe. The Coach's Guide to Competing Abroad. Leeds: National Coaching Foundation, 1988.
2. Minors, D.S., J.M. Waterhouse, and L.R. Smith, The body clock: jet-lag, physical and psychological rhythms. In: Intermittent High Intensity Exercise: Preparation, Stresses and Damage Limitation, D.A.D. Macleod, R.J. Maughan, C. Williams, G.R. Madeley, J.C.M. Sharp and R.W. Nutton (Eds.). E. London: F.N. Spon: 1992, pp. 75- 90.
3. Reilly, T. Circadian rhythms and exercise. in: Exercise, Benefits, Limits and Adaptations, D. Macleod, R.J. Maughan, M. Nimmo, T. Reilly and C. Williams (Eds.). London: E. and F.N. Spon, 1987, pp.46-66.
4. Reilly, T. and S. Mellor, Jet-lag in student Rugby League players following a near maximal time-zone shift. In: Science and Football, T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. Murphy (Eds.). London: E. and F.N. Spon, 1988, pp. 249-256.
5. Olympic Committee. From the U.S. to Seoul. Colorado Springs: U.S. Olympic Committee, 1988.

Overtraining

Institutionalized Overtraining
By Rushall, B. S. (1994). Impressions from US Swimming's 1994 National Team Coaches' Meeting.
From SWIMMING Coaching Science Bulletin, 5 (2), 1-7.
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Overtraining has been of concern to coaches over the past few years since training loads have been increased to the point of often being excessive.

The avoidance of overtraining has been a central focus of sports science and sports medicine education . There are two common scenarios with regard to coping with overtraining in sports.

1. If a coach develops an annual plan that includes predicted periods of lessened training stress as a precaution to avoid overtraining or maladaptation, it is possible that athletes will come to expect periods of reduced strain. They usually learn th at they must have such "recovery" periods otherwise they cannot perform well.

2. If a coach frequently quizzes athletes about the symptoms of overtraining or maladaptation, it is possible that athletes will be sensitized to such symptoms and will exaggerate their slightest existence. In more extreme cases, they become neurotic and imagine the symptoms even though they really do not exist at a critical level. Athletes learn to be weaker rather than stronger in the face of continued exercise stress and overtraining symptom emphasis.

Both the above illustrations exaggerate the symptoms and onset of overtraining. The institutionally validated emphasis on appropriate symptoms and the state causes athletes to expect to feel stress symptoms, often in a neurotic manner. Some athletes even become obsessed with transitory and minor symptoms, particularly those which originate from stresses outside of the sport. That obsession often becomes strong enough to the point that activity is limited because of the way the athlete feels even th ough assertive activity may be the best therapy to alleviate the outside-of-sport stress symptoms themselves. Thus, the well-meaning coach who does not want to push athletes into excessive and unnecessary long-term fatigue states may actually be producing a counter-productive psychological state in athletes. An athlete's ability to work to the fullest potential is compromised by anticipations of the symptoms and fear of overtraining.

The term "institutionalized overtraining" is used to label this effect. That label recognizes that the origin of the complicating sensitization and expectation is derived from the directing body (i.e., the coach).
Modern coaching actually requires athletes to endure greater amounts of relevant work because the overall volume of training is still one of the most significant factors associated with sporting success.

Institutionalized overtraining is counter-productive to this aim.
To avoid its occurrence, the following steps can be taken.
(a) Do not plan periods of decreased overload for "recovery" purposes.
(b) Do not plan transitional training phases where fitness is partially lost.
(c) Instead, demand consistent high quality technical performance at practices. When performance quality deteriorates, allow athletes to terminate participation in that practice segment. This facilitates each individual's capacity to tolerate particular levels of strain, avoids performing in detrimental excessive fatigue states, and allows athletes better in-session recovery.
(d) The orientation of athletes is turned from trying to complete all training, to completing the greatest volume of quality training possible.

This is particularly beneficial for avoiding maladaptation and has the concomitant benefit of increasing the v olume of quality performance and decreasing the volume of inferior performance.

(e) Since athletes are encouraged never to enter excessively fatigued states, the likelihood of their entering an overtrained state is greatly reduced. With that reduction, it becomes unnecessary to plan for unloading macrocycles.

(f) Athletes are continually challenged to do more quality training. The neurotic imagination of symptoms that happens with nstitutionalized overtraining is avoided.

(g) The success of this approach is dependent upon the sole criterion for cessation of a training stimulus: When performance decreases, despite a compensatory increase in effort, the practice item should be terminated.

(h) For the coach, the following decision making activity is appropriate:
i. Take note of the performance standard that is initially displayed in the training segment.
ii. When an athlete's technique begins to deteriorate note its effect on performance.
iii. When performance deteriorates despite increased effort on behalf of the athlete, terminate the athlete's involvement in that segment.

This procedure will stimulate athletes to perform the greatest possible amount of quality training while avoiding overtraining or excessive maladaptation. They will not become neurotic about overworking, but rather, will be encouraged to continually "push the envelope" of performance capacity by (a) overriding natural and/or cultural inhibitions, (b) increasing performance efficiency so that a greater volume of work can be accommodated given a finite performance capacity, and/or (c) increasing the volume of beneficial training and reducing the amount of irrelevant training. It is the last item that is perhaps the most important. Since an athlete has a finite capacity for exercise and performance, it is in his/her best interest to use as much as possible of that capacity in relevant training. Many modern sports programs are being side-tracked by "circus" training, that is, activities which have little to none to counter-productive relationships with intended competition performances. Examples of c ircus training are: attending "specialized training" camps where programs are not related to the long term program of development hopefully being undertaken by serious athletes; altitude training camps where the requirements for performance are altered fr om those required at sea-level; performing "test sets" of training stimuli which have no relationship to actual competitive performances; training with heavy weight programs when such activities have been shown to have little benefit for or relationship to performance and may even be the seeds of injury; competing in contests which do not fit with training objectives; and performing activities to indulge sports science "testing." These examples of dubious activities

which are creeping into modern trainin g programs all interfere with consistent training and detract from the opportunities to indulge in relevant activities. This alternative approach to training will not produce overtrained states because athletes should never be overstressed. Each training stimulus will terminate when its benefits (the repetition of a particular quality of work) are no longer evident. Even when outside-of-sport stresses are transferred into practice, the diminished capacity of an athlete on that day will be accommodated by this approach.

This procedure contrasts markedly with the consistently excessive training program, the extended program that eventually produces overtraining, and the neurotic expectation of overtrained states and symptoms. With the consistent expectation to perfor m with quality there may be no ceiling to possible performance improvement. This training orientation is very dependent upon the motivation of athletes to do quality training. It demands that if quality performances cannot be produced then recovery is the next best option. Large percentages of training time performing less than optimal exercises and technique would be forsaken. Some critics would claim that this description is a disguise for a high quality -- low volume orientation.

Nothing could be further from the truth. It is a method for generating the greatest volume of quality training. Appropriate motivation will be developed if contingencies that support quality performance are constructed. This most probably will need at least some behavioral goal to be set for every training segment, and at a minimum, perhaps a weekly evaluation of performance change (improvement).

Athletes need to have the incentive to constantly strive for the greatest volume of quality training possible. As soon as a below-quality performance occurs they are encouraged to recover rather than to persist with degraded quality while accruing greater levels of detrimental general fatigue.

There are two high profile coaches who program this form of training.

Mike Spracklen, arguably the best rowing coach in the world, the current Head Coach of Men's Sweep for US Rowing, and Gregg Troy, the Head Coach of Swimming at The Bolles School in Florida, employ each ingredient of the model.

In San Diego, California, prospective members of the US Men's Eight-oar Crew train mainly in pair-oar boats. At most training sessions all crews row together and are able to see how they are faring in comparison to each other. That competitiveness i s an incentive to perform with quality. Each week, all crews perform a time-trial over racing distance.

Over time, those athletes with the best technique, physical capacity, and psychological strength will be identifiable. It is those athletes who will be selected for the USA's main boat. Within Mike Spracklen's program there is nothing said about athletes who drop out of a segment of a training session or have a practice off to have extra recovery. The system that finally locates the athletes with the greatest capacity to do the high est quality of race-simulation type training, will eventually discover those athletes with a lesser capacity.

It also should be recognized that Coach Spracklen also programs periods of moderate stress so that the volume of quality rowing actually perform ed in a season is extremely large when compared to other high profile rowing programs. This is not a "survival of the fittest" program for it is remarkable how many young men are able to adapt to the increased volume of high quality work, something which they have never before experienced.

Coach Spracklen goes further. He attempts to program training sessions which avoid excessive debilitating fatigue. Instead of falling into the traditional pattern of training early and late in the day with long sessions, he ensures opportunities for his rowers to get adequate night and between-practice-sessions rest. Recognizing that in a two-hour practice session it is usually the last half-hour that is of the worst quality but the greatest fatigue, he often programs three practice sessions a day, each being approximately one and a half hours. The detrimental latter portion fatigue of the two-hour practice is avoided, the less stressful shorter practices require less recovery between sessions, and so a greater volume of adaptive and quality training is performed each day and across the particular training phase.

The underlying feature of Mike Spracklen's coaching is the relentless pursuit of vast amounts of excellence in technique. No weakness is institutionalized into the US Men's Sweep Rowing program.

Gregg Troy attempts to extend the work capacity of his swimmers to their greatest levels (Rushall, 1994).
1. He does not allow his swimmers to ever lose conditioning. There are no days off for recovery.
2. During the winter he does not like his swimmers to enter many competitions. If there are too many races, then swimmers do not get the opportunity to "set up" properly for racing," which he implied, is an important skill and set of procedures.
3. Coach Troy's programs are long-term oriented. He wants his swimmers to compete well on only a few identified occasions. He stressed that it is of no value to sacrifice training for lesser level competitions.
4. Any recovery that occurs is done on an individual basis. There is no planned "team" recovery period.
5. During a taper or period of rest, Coach Troy and the athlete work together to determine the most successful course of training. He cited the example of how little work Greg Burgess does in the last week of a taper and yet he still performs well in races.

This alternative perception of overtraining, on the surface, appears to contradict popular approaches to the phenomenon. However, it is an improvement. Current practice usually has athletes working hard for the full duration of a training session. When the session is completed, usually because no more time remains, athletes are then released to recover before the next scheduled practice. There is no guarantee in this form of time management that: (a) athletes will recover between practice sessions ; (b) the total work of the individual practice session is beneficial; (c) the physical stimuli experienced are accommodated for each individual; and (d) athletes will not become preoccupied with tolerating general fatigue and its personal manifestations.

Those weaknesses are removed by this alternative approach to handling training stress and the phenomenon of overtraining. If a sporting program emphasizes overtraining and the fear of it, the ability to sustain quality training and to explore alternative methods for extending exercise tolerance capacities will be weakened.

Factors Affecting Strength

Factors Affecting Strength
by Fred Hatfield Ph.D. MSS International Sports Science Association
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In a recent post on m.f.w, Mr Deadlift said, "Increased strength can come from two sources... Increased muscle size, and increased neuromuscular efficiency. I replied by saying "In my experience, strength can be augmented in many more ways than this, and in fact MUST be if you're ever gonna break any records! I then went on to list 38 factors (certainly not exhaustive of the possibilities) that affect strength. Some of the factors I listed are either so subjective that one can only ponder their significance, or so new that hypotheses relating to their applicability cannot easily be made at this time. They are there simply to pique interest.

Further, I made it CLEAR that while not all of the listed factors can be anipulated, most can. Spector, in his typical tongue-in-cheek (easily mistaken for caustic sarcasm by some on m.f.w) fashion, pointed out that he had a problem with some of the factors. That's ok, considering the fact that his background is not the same as mine -- we all have our unique contributions to training methodology that we can make, which is why the m.f.w newsgroup exists. So, I will attempt to explain some of them, as I understand that not all of the people on m.f.w have similar backgrounds. We all, however, have a similar PASSION to lift -- and to learn -- no?

FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH
"Gotta go train" is a phrase heard by spouses everywhere. What does it mean? Save for the crafty pencilneck who uses it as a convincing excuse to go out carousing (the spouse is easily duped because his/her spouse is obviously in desperate need of training), it typically means going to a gym to lift weights.

Tch tch! Lifting weights is NOT training! It's certainly an integral part of training, but there's so much more. Let's lay down some simple guidelines as to how each of the factors affecting strength can be augmented. Let's concentrate on the critical factors, as they are the ones that will give most of us the greatest returns in limit strength and speed-strength for both immediate and long-term sports excellence.

Your job is always going to be to identify -- and apply -- those technologies which BEST augment each of the respective factors, and arrange them into a coherent, integrated training program for your sport. Perhaps then you'll see the wisdom of the opening paragraph ("Lifting weights is NOT training!").

Let me back up a moment, and consider the word "apply." How many times have I met lifters who know something is beneficial, but don't take advantage of it? This is sick! If you KNOW that massage following lifting is beneficial, then DO IT! If you KNOW that eating 5 or 6 meals a day is better for muscle growth, then DO IT! Even if it's only good for 5 pounds on total, it's WORTH it! That is, IF you have PASSION for what you do.

All of these factors can be augmented, manipulated or in some way made more efficient through various and timely applications of one or more of the eight "technologies" of training (defined below). Clearly, some are not alterable (e.g., fiber arrangement or insertion points of muscles). That doesn't mean you can't make use of your knowledge of this limitation in structuring your training, in avoiding less-than- fruitful practices, or in some way manipulating them to your advantage.

Bear in mind that many of the factors affecting strength are inextricably interrelated and may be directly or indirectly, positively or negatively, affected by your attempts to augment or in some way manipulate any of them, regardless of which technologies are employed in training. For example, long, slow distance running (aerobic) will invariably hamper your efforts to achieve maximum starting strength. There are many, many similar scenarios, and the wise coach or athlete will learn to avoid this often costly kind of mistake.

The eight technologies of training are the branches of science of greatest consequence to athletes and fitness enthusiasts alike. Each represents a different approach to solve training problems, and each has its advantages with respect to how effectively it will aid in augmenting any one (or more) of the factors which affect strength (listed above).

Remember that there are only so many hours in the day, so prudent use of the technologies that will yield the greatest returns to you are the ones you must opt for. The basic rule of thumb in choosing the technologies that will give you the most "bang for your buck" is to zero in on the most important training objectives for the training mesocycle you're in. Then, through a multiplicative approach that incorporates the concepts of "integration" and "synergy," you choose the methods that will get you to your goals most safely, quickly and to the greatest extent possible.

THE EIGHT TECHNOLOGIES OF TRAINING
1. Weight Training: Dumbells, barbells, fluids, pressurized air, elastic devices, springs, and the host of devices designed to provide "heavy" external resistance to one's musculoskeletal effort all constitute "resistance training."


Tradition has it that exercises designed to be performed with dumbbells and barbells (and the technologies designed to simulate traditional dumbbell and barbell movements) constitutes "weight training." The existing categories of weight training technologies are 1) constant resistance devices, 2) variable resistance devices, 3) accommodating resistance devices and 4) static resistance devices. New technologies will be developed in time.

2. Special Forms of Resistance Training: Running, swimming, calisthenics, aerobic dance, plyometrics -- there are many more -- all are special forms of "light" resistance training. When bodyweight alone is the source of resistance, tradition and reasons of clarity dictate that they be referred to by their individual names. Cycling, rowing, stair-climbers, and similar forms of training which utilize "light" external resistance collectively constitute a second category of light resistance training which are also referred to by their respective names.

3. Psychological Techniques: Self-hypnosis, mental imagery training, transcendental meditation and a lot of other "mind games" can help improve your strength output capabilities in sports and training.

4. Therapeutic Modalities: Whirlpools, electrical muscle stimulation, massage, ultrasound, music, intense light, and a host of other therapies can have a very positive effect on your strength training efforts, both indirectly (how quickly you can recover from your previous workout), and directly (greater force output).

5. Medical Support: Periodic checkups, exercising preventive care, chiropractic adjustments, and even clinical use of prescription drugs are sometimes indicated for athletes in heavy training when medical problems arise. Only qualified sportsmedicine specialists are able to prescribe such support.

6. Biomechanics (Skill Training): Performing your skill perfectly will almost always result in greater force being applied, whether it is applied to an object, opponent or the ground. Good skills execution involves the efficient sequencing of activation/inhibition of prime mover, stabilizer and synergistic muscles. Your sequencing efforts involve factors of position, direction, timing, rate, speed & effect of force application.

7. Dietary Practices: Athletes don't eat only to stay alive and healthy; they eat to excel at their sport. Their eating is designed to assist in achieving specific sports/training objectives. There are many nutritional techniques that will ensure greater force output capabilities both immediately as well as over time, thereby improving your training and competition efforts. Despite your most dedicated
efforts, however, you will not be able to gain ample nutritional support from food alone, a point which has been supported time and time again in sports nutrition research.

8. Nutritional Supplementation: Most often, eating is not sufficient to give you all the nutrients you need in order to achieve your sports/training objectives. This point is widely disputed among sports scientists and nutritionists alike, who would have us believe that eating "three square meals" per day is ample fare for athletes in heavy training. They overlook at least three important points: 1) many
state-of-the-art supplements are designed to take your body beyond normal biochemical functioning, 2) no one on Earth consistently eats "square meals," and 3) myriad research reports clearly show that deficiencies most often exist in athletes' diets for many well-documented reasons.

MATCHING TRAINING TECHNOLOGIES TO TRAINING OBJECTIVES
In your quest for fitness, your job is always going to be to identify -- and apply -- those technologies which BEST augment each of the factors that affect fitness, and arrange them into a coherent, integrated training program. Clearly, some factors are not alterable (e.g., fiber arrangement or insertion points of muscles). That doesn't mean you can't make use of your knowledge of these limitations in structuring your training, in avoiding less-than- fruitful practices, or in some way manipulating them to your advantage.

Bear in mind that many of the factors affecting strength and fitness are inextricably interrelated and may be directly or indirectly, positively or negatively, affected by your attempts to augment or in some way manipulate any of them, regardless of which technologies are employed in training. For example, long, slow distance running (aerobic) will invariably hamper your efforts to achieve maximum starting strength. There are many, many similar scenarios, and the wise coach or athlete will learn to avoid this often costly kind of mistake.

Remember that there are only so many hours in the day, so you must choose the methods of training that will yield the greatest returns to you. Zero in on your most important training objectives, and integrate the training methods that will get you to your goals most safely, quickly and to the greatest extent possible.

Matching Training Methods To Fitness Objectives
1. Muscle Fiber Arrangement: Sorry folks, nothing you can do about this one. You can, however, take advantage of your knowledge about how the fibers of each muscle are arranged. Some are made for speed, some for great limit strength, some for stability and some are made for all three. Train them that way! (Once in awhile, at least.)

2. Musculoskeletal Leverage: Nothing you can do short of radical surgical procedures will change your leverages. But, by knowing how best to take advantage of your leverage systems' structure, efficiency in lifting techniques (and thus your strength output) will be optimized.

3. Tissue Leverage: Interstitial and intracellular leverage stemming from fat deposits, sarcoplasmic content, satellite cell proliferation and the accumulation of intracellular fluid all provide a sort of "bloat" factor to your body. Believe it or not, the big boys in sport -- the super-heavyweights – can benefit in limit strength output from being "bloated." For the rest of you, it's not a tenable source of improved fitness.

4. Freedom of Movement Between Fibers: Adhesions and scar tissue between muscle fibers and between gross muscles can limit your muscles' ability to contract fully. Simple massage can reduce this condition.

5. Tissue Viscoelasticity: All of your muscles have a certain amount of "elasticity." That is, when you stretch them, they tend to return to their resting length. This tendency can be dramatically increased by rapid stretching, much the same as rearing back sharply before throwing a punch. If you rear back slowly, the muscles' natural viscoelasticity will not aid in the return movement.

6. Intramuscular/intracellular friction: As the actin and myosin myofibrils slide over one another as the result of cross-bridging, friction is taking place resulting in heat production. Fast movements create less friction than slow ones, and eccentric movements create far more friction than concentric movements. High friction during muscle contraction has a negative effect on force output.

7. Ratio of Fiber Types: Explosive athletes have fast twitch muscle fibers (Types IIa, IIb or IIc), and endurance athletes have primarily red muscle fibers (Type I). Proper training can actually enhance your muscle fibers' ability to do their respective job, although little can be done to convert one type to another type.

8. Range of Motion: Impaired flexibility stemming from either congenital factors, inactivity or poor training habits can limit the amount of force you can apply in many sport-related and training-related settings.

9. Freedom From Injury: An injury can keep you from your fitness goals. Even miniscule ones can nag you enough to prevent you from getting more fit. so avoid them!

10. Connective Tissue Structure: Tendinous and ligamentous mass and their structural characteristics all contribute to your potential strength level. Did you know, for example, that the collagenous matrix comprising various ligaments and tendons are susceptible to change through highly specialized training?

11. Stretch Reflex: Your muscle spindles -- highly specialized muscle cells which detect stretch -- react when stimulated by making your muscle contract involuntarily. This involuntary contraction can, if applied correctly, augment total force output to a small but significant degree.

12. The Feedback Loop: Your muscles' force output potential far exceed the threshold at which your brain tells them to shut down. It's easily changed -- lowered -- with weight training.

13. Endocrine System Functions (hormones): Your hormones ebb and flow according to little understood circadian rhythms. You can indeed control many of them, and doing so requires a full understanding of that circadian rhythmicity.

14. Extent of hyperplasia (cell splitting) or fiber fusion: As yet not totally confirmed is the notion that fibers (especially Type IIb fibers) fuse with surrounding satellite cells for greater hypertrophy. As for hyperplasia, there is no concrete evidence that it occurs in humans. In either case, there is no defined connection between either processes and greater strength.

15. Extent of myofibrillarization: The contractile elements within your working muscles are called myofibrils. Weight training increases the number of myofibrils inside each cell.

16. Motor Unit Recruitment: Firing as many muscle fibers as possible instantly is how speed is produced.

17. energy transfer systems' efficiency

18. extensiveness of capillarization

19. mitochondrial growth and proliferation

20. stroke volume of the left ventricle

21. ejection fraction of the left ventricle

22. pulmonary (ventilatory) capacity

23. efficiency of gas exchange in the lungs

24. heart rate

25. max VO2 uptake (ml/kg bwt/min)

Factors 17-25 are affected by training. Remember that they positively affect the force output -- footfall-per-footfall -- of the aerobic athletes acquiring them! This same form of training would NEGATIVELY affect the force output efforts of explosive athletes.

26. Freedom from disease: PREVENTION includes sound nutrition and medical support.

27. Arousal Level ("psych"): Psychological and psychosocial strategies can often aid you in training.

29. Ability to concentrate ("focus"): Your mind is said to be the master of your body. Again, psychosocial techniques as well as sound nutrition can help.

30. Incentive (motivation): In short, you've gotta WANT it bad enough to work for it!

31. Social learning: Overcoming learned inhibitory can be a monumental undertaking, especially in light of the fact than your Mamma scolded you for years not to lift something, run too fast or whatever -- because it'd hurt you.

32. Coordination ("skill"): Efficient movement involves carefully planned activation or inhibition of muscle contraction. Factors of position, direction, timing, rate, speed & effect of force application are all part-and-parcel to skill training.

33. "Spiritual" factors: Without becoming embroiled in a philosophical discussion regarding the merits of one religeon or another, my strong belief is that if you are spiritually at peace with your Creator, all things are possible. If you don't believe in and practice this in your everyday life, then how can your life -- and your quest for fitness -- even have meaning?

34. The "placebo" effect: Theories abound on this phenomenon, most citing various psycho-social factors. The effect is nonetheless real.

35. Equipment (use of "the best" available tools): Are you able to take full advantage of your body's leverage with crummy shoes? A bent bar? Poor equipment? ...the list is endless.

36. Environment (Temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, altitude, etc.): Train in a cold gym? Does the high humidity get you down while training? Altitude training for aerobic athletes and hyperbaric training for strength athletes surely aid in performance.

37. Effect of gravity: Clearly, gravity exerts its influence on your force output efforts. You can't change that, but you can certainly take advantage of it! For example, putting a shot at around 45 degrees, the shot will travel further than if you put it at (say) 30 degrees. Another example: When you throw someone to the ground (wrestling), you do so with greater force than if you threw him in the air. Gravity assists (adds to the force of your effort) in both examples.

38. Opposing and assisting forces (e.g., opponent's efforts may add to your force output vis a vis Newton's three laws of motion): Get a guy moving in your direction, and you will find it more easy to throw him than attempting to do so while he is stationary. Myriad examples of this simple tenet abound in the martial arts and all other sport endeavors.

Adaptive Rowing

Adaptive Rowing – Specific Needs, Equipment & Methods
By Jose Nunes Portuguese Rowing Federation (POR); Rowing for All (Adaptive Rowing), FISA Commission.
From Quovadis Rowing Seminar, Cologne 1998
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Adaptive Rowing, do you know it? Is rowing a Paralympic sport? How many countries have an adaptive rowing program? Which type of rowing boats do you use in your program? What sort of technical aids are required to adaptive rowing? How can we guide our technical approach? Do you need an adapted rowing technique? How can we manage water safety? Which type of disability will get the best help from rowing? Is rowing a way for people to integrate?

No doubt, simple and difficult questions that will need an effort to answer if a person with a temporary or a life-long disability comes to a club to share the sport of rowing and the joy of being a rower. In Athens, 2004, the IPC (International Paralympics Committee) expects the participation of 150 countries in the Paralympics Games. Paralympics means attached to the Olympics and, today, the spirit of the Olympic Movement means two world events: the Olympics Games and the Paralympics Games.

Rowing has been an Olympic sport since 1896, but it is not a Paralympic sport. Sydney 2000 will welcome 18 sports with 5000 athletes introducing sailing and wheelchair rugby as official paralympics sports. Rowing is the third Olympic sport in terms of number of athletes (545 rowers) but is facing a global sport pressure to reduce the number of rowers mainly due to its lake of universality and popularity. The first and second Olympic sports are Athletics and Swimming. They joint Paralimpic Movement in 1960, the year of the first Paralympics Games in Rome, and they are the two only sports with events in all sport areas of disability: blind, wheelchair, cerebral palsy and mental disabilities. Rowing is almost 40 years behind and, beside universality, rowing is facing a strikingly weak image point inside sport and public international community, because if rowing is an ideal lifetime sport for everyone, numbers and facts speak against it.

Adaptive rowing started in the seventies in the Netherlands and in Great Britain by the hand of rowing people. Inside each country, rehabilitation aim was guiding the field action using mainly leisure boats. A similar approach, on a larger scale, was made in the USA with the ‘freedom on the river’ program and, for the first time, an adaptive boat (the ‘omni-cat’) was produce to make rowing possible for people with more severe disabilities. Australia had joined this way and, in 1985, an international regatta took place in the Netherlands.

Now, adaptive rowing takes place on all 5 Continents and is promoted by 14 countries.

As with the beginning of FISA a hundred years ago, each country has made it’s own approach, using different types of boats, races and rowers’ classification and, for that reason, international events are difficult due to the lake of boat and rule standardization. Besides the performance boats used by a small number of rowers, adaptive rowing is performed in many different types of boats, mainly leisure boats.

The boats used are made in plastic or wood with single or double hull with one, two or four rowers, for sweep or scull oars. These 14 types of different boats can be row with sliding seats or fix seats, with or without a coxswain. The boat weight has a wide range for these boats and for some of them, support pontoons in the riggers can be added. Some of these boats are very expensive and others are small cost boats with some potential to be spread worldwide. Some of the adaptive rowing programs are working with national standard boats but, at international level, this is still an open issue.

Besides boats and rowing tanks, the electronic rowing ergometers used worldwide by performance and fitness rowers create a new window for adaptive rowing. In fact, adaptive indoor rowing has made rowing possible for everyone, anywhere and has made adaptive rowing competition easy for almost all types of disabilities. With indoor rowing, adaptive rowing has raised a high potential for a global approach in the world of sport for people with disabilities or with special needs.

The analysis of rowing performance profile (by Thor Nielsen (FISA Development Program) shows that rowing is an endurance sport, a healthy sport for everyone. In rowing, the technical skills are an important aspect of success in top level performance. But, technique is not thinking as a complex motor pattern dependent of the action context but a dynamic movement to be improved in a permanent context, the boat and water system.

Suddenly, for people with disabilities, the chance of rowing is dependent on an adaptive factor: the equilibrium. Taking in consideration this adaptive factor, rowing is possible for many profiles of disability. The equipment may require some technical aids or more stable boats but all the training methods developed by performance rowing are the same methods to be used in adaptive rowing.

The analysis of rowing technique profile shows that an adapted technique of rowing is not required for people with disabilities. Rowing technique is a complex movement, but can be learnt by imitation. Propelling the boat is possible by the action of the arms and, for that, a sliding seat is not required. A fixed seat is a technical aid for adaptive rowing.




The seat position is an early posture. Before walking, people have to learn to sit. This achievement will be a very positive input to the learning rowing process. The structure of the movement requires a cyclic and symmetric body action. So, in indoor rowing, rowing is possible and will help people with a lower level of body coordination. But, in water, beside memory, safety will be connected to the level of body coordination and to the level of understanding the bodyboat system. The body output is opposite of the boat output and for some levels of disability, profile rowing still requires a high level of cognition and
body coordination.

Rowing is a team sport and a team requires an organize group of behavior. This code of communication and cooperation needs to be understood by a flexible and multi-way process. This means a complex and learning stage process a bit outside of rowing tradition.

The analysis of rowing technique generates so many questions and problems. But, at the same time, this technical approach will help to master them.
The chart of adaptive rowing master problems will provide powerful insights for coaches who work with people with different types of disabilities. The basic idea is not learning an adapted technique but learning the correct rowing technique by the help of technical aids, single-team boats and indoor/water equipment. This will make possible adaptive rowing for a large group of disability profiles and people with special needs.

Some technical aids have already been developed for indoor and water adaptive rowing. They can be summarized by an adaptive foot stretcher with asymmetric regulation, holding gloves for the handle of the oar, weighted oars and double button oars, several types of fixed seat and riggers pontoons, coaching headsets, etc. Other helping systems connected to the water pontoons and inside the boathouse may help the integration of people with disabilities and without disabilities making rowing a more friendly sport.

The linkage between the expertise of high level rowing and adaptive rowing is crucial. The ability of a person to perform rowing technique is dependent of several factors of motor development. Everyone knows that a good indoor rower may not be a good water rower. But a good rower is an athlete with a good performance in the boat and in the rowing ergometer.

The first factor, tonicity, is the first of the scale. The last factor, epicritic praxis (connected to smooth coordination) is the more complex but is dependent on the development of
all the previous factors. For example, equilibrium control is needed for a proper differentiation of right and left side. But, rhythm is based on spacetime organization and is dependent of a good development of these previous factors.

Rowing require a good development of all these motor factors. By them, indoor and water rowing may be understand as a unit in terms of adaptive rowing. For some disabilities profiles, water rowing in stable boats is too demanding and the aim of rowing technique development stays, with the present knowledge, in the indoor rowing. So, indoor rowing is a less complex movement than water rowing and may reach a larger group of people.



Rowing in double hull boats is more demanding than the indoor rowing movement but less demanding than rowing in single hull boats. Taking in consideration this approach, an upgrading system may support the development of adaptive rowing. By indoor rowing, rowing will have a chance for introducing competitive large-scale events for people with and without disabilities. By developing an upgrade competitive system, rowing will strongly contribute to the integration of people with disabilities worldwide and will reinforce the values of rowing.

Last but not least, if rowing fulfills this commitment, the quota pressure on rowing at the Olympic Games will be reduced and rowing will really become a worldwide sport for everyone.

Acknowledgements:
Amateur Rowing Association, Development and Adaptive Rowing Program, Great Britain
Dutch Adaptive Rowing Foundation, Netherlands
Landesruderverband Berlin, Germany
Adaptive Rowing Program, Rowing Australia Inc, Australia
FISA Adaptive Working Group

Energy Drinks, Sport Bars & Gels

Nutrition – Energy Drinks, Sport Bars & Gels
by Charlene Boudreau,
From USA Swimming
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The use and selection of energy bars, sports drinks and gels has grown considerably over the past few years. For athletes, reasons for using these products are typically based on their convenience and potential performance-improving effects. Bars, drinks and gels provide a quick and easy means of supplying the body with calories and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) when conventional foods are not available or feasible. Since swimmers typically workout and/or race in the morning when they may choose not to eat, and an overnight fast would force them to perform in a partially glycogen-depleted state, bars, drinks and gels may provide a compact, more tolerable “meal” substitution. In some cases, the addition of certain ingredients promises results.

Energy bars fall into 3 main categories, depending on their nutrient composition:
-High Carbohydrate Bars (>30 g carbohydrate)
-High Protein Bars (>12 g protein)
-Mixed Bars (usually >20 g carbohydrate, >10 g protein, 2.5-10 g fat).

High carbohydrate bars provide the fuel needed for tough endurance workouts. High protein bars are often promoted for post-workout recovery. Mixed bars make a healthy snack during the day when time is short and hunger is big.

Gels are typically high in carbohydrate (>30g) and low in fat (<1g) and protein (<12 g). They include mainly simple sugars, as opposed to complex carbohydrates. Since simple sugars reach the bloodstream faster than complex carbohydrates, which take longer to digest and be absorbed, gels are typically used in situations when carbohydrates are needed quickly. For swimmers, breaks between sets present an opportunity to provide the body with the energy (carbohydrate) it needs for long workouts.

Sports drinks have traditionally been comprised of carbohydrate and electrolytes in amounts that enhance fluid absorption and minimize gastrointestinal distress. Over the past 5 years, sports drinks have expanded to include those with added amino acids, herbal ingredients and herbal mental “boosters.” Many products have been marketed to a consumer base that goes beyond the competitive athlete and into the realm of the recreational and leisure activity participants.

In addition to the convenience factor, many energy bars, sports drinks and gels have direct scientifically proven benefits both during and following exercise. The two basic reasons why researchers suggest that athletes turn to these types of fuels are:
Fluid replenishment (drinks).
Energy provision (bars, drinks, gels).

Maintaining Hydration During Exercise - The daily sweat loss for elite level athletes can range from 1 to 1.5 liters per hour. Depending on the intensity and duration of the workouts, the daily water requirement for these athletes ranges from two to six liters per day. In extreme cases, this requirement may be as high as 16 liters per day if the climate is hot. Failure to maintain a hydrated state can lead to detrimental changes in the cardiovascular response to exercise, over-heating of the body and decreases in both maximal power and work capacity. Just a 2% drop in body weight due to dehydration can have an overall negative impact on exercise performance.

The collection of research addressing sports drinks is extensive and has evolved quite dramatically over the years. Studies have indicated that the ingestion of a 6-8% carbohydrate beverage (ex. Gatorade, Powerade) during prolonged strenuous exercise can delay fatigue and improve performance. The theory is that the carbohydrate drink provides sugar (glucose) to the blood, which spares glycogen (the body’s internal reserve of carbohydrate) during prolonged exercise. And we know that how well a fluid (sports drink or water) works depends on (1) how much is ingested (fluid ingestion), (2) how long it takes for that fluid to move from the stomach to the intestine (gastric emptying…the faster the better), (3) how long it takes to be absorbed from the intestine into the bloodstream (intestinal absorption) and (4) whether it weakens or enhances the body’s utilization of carbohydrate as a fuel (fuel utilization).

Providing Energy During Exercise - In addition to staying hydrated, athletes are faced with the task of fueling their bodies for performance. For activities lasting less than one hour, this can usually be accomplished with the pre-exercise meal or snack.

For longer-duration activities, this usually means “eating on the run.” Given the environment, swimmers face the added obstacle of the water. Conventional “dry” foods are not feasible, making products such as water, sports drinks, energy bars and gels their only options. This also leads to the questions of what, when, why and how much?

The use of bars, drinks and gels as fuel sources during exercise is based on their typically high carbohydrate content. Providing the body with carbohydrate during prolonged activity maintains blood sugar levels. The availability of this “fuel” during exercise allows the body to spare glycogen and can prolong the time an athlete can exercise before tiring. The well-researched sports drink (also called carbohydrate electrolyte drink) has traditionally been recommended for endurance events lasting
more than 90 minutes. However, recent research suggests that sports drinks can improve high intensity and sprint-interval sessions lasting less than an hour. This suggests a benefit to using sports drinks for fuel during workouts to a broader segment of the athletic community, including sprinters.

Hydrating the Body at Rest – Quality workouts depend on replenishing fuel stores that were spent during previous sessions. This includes, but is not limited to, fluids. Failure to correct a fluid deficit incurred from one workout before the next workout puts the athlete at risk for a compromised performance. Starting a session in a dehydrated state may cause a faster rise in core body temperature, greater cardiovascular strain and an impaired ability to dissipate heat. These effects may be exaggerated if the workout takes place in a hot environment. Therefore, re-hydrating and maintaining a hydrated state outside of practice times is just as critical to the athlete as hydrating during workouts.

Be aware that thirst is not always an accurate indicator of when an athlete should begin hydrating. For most athletes, by the time they are thirsty, they are already dehydrated. This makes the intake of fluids, including sports drinks, an important part of the daily nutrition program, especially during the recovery phase. It has been suggested that fluids containing sodium are more efficient at hydrating than plain water alone. According to the American College of Sports Medicine, “one should consume adequate fluids during the 24-hour period before an event and drink about 500 ml (about 17 oz) of fluid about 2 hours before exercise to promote adequate hydration and allow time for excretion of excess ingested water.”

Fueling the Body at Rest – As mentioned previously, quality workouts depend on replenishing fuel stores spent during previous sessions. Depending on the extent of depletion, it can take as long as 24 hours to fully replenish glycogen stores, but the first two hours post-workout are the most critical. Given the right fuel, glycogen synthesis during this time can occur as much as 2-3 times faster than normal (i.e. compared to if they were given no fuel at all). This is due to the increased sensitivity of muscle cells to the hormone insulin. It is well known that the ingestion of carbohydrate causes an insulin response (i.e. increasing glucose in blood increases insulin in the blood). The presence of insulin in the bloodstream promotes the uptake of glucose by the muscles. Once moved from blood to muscle, this glucose can then be converted to glycogen for storage. Certain proteins and amino acids have been shown to elicit an insulin response. When ingested with carbohydrate, they can create a “synergistic” effect. In other words, their combined effect is greater than the sum of their individual effects. Those found to have the greatest impact on insulin levels include protein hydrolysate mixtures, leucine, phenylalanine, and arginine.

In addition, insulin itself has been proposed as an important factor in muscle protein balance by increasing synthesis and decreasing degradation. Some researchers believe that when exercise acts as the stimulus and levels of circulating amino acids are high, a more anabolic (muscle-building) state is created. Unfortunately, research in this area is still limited, and questions still remain regarding how nutrition impacts resistance and intermittent activities. The general idea is to take advantage of the body’s natural post-exercise sensitivity to insulin by providing it with food that will (1) raise insulin levels, (2) put glucose in the bloodstream quickly and (3) enhance the conversion of glucose to glycogen.

At rest, such as during the pre- and post-workout periods, the use of energy bars, drinks and gels varies with personal preference, time available to eat, etc. In addition, athletes are compelled to select these products based on claims made by the manufacturers about the addition of various ingredients and which products are “the best.” Some of these claims are related to fat burning capabilities, the roles of electrolytes (sodium, potassium, chloride) and caffeine, and the addition of various carbohydrate/protein hydrolysate combinations. An important point to remember is that because most bars, drinks and gels are considered dietary supplements, they are subject to the less stringent regulation demonstrated within the supplement industry since the passing of the Dietary Supplements Health and Education Act of 1994

For this reason, it is worth the time for athletes and coaches to choose their bars, drinks and gels cautiously.

To address some of the issues mentioned above, I recently reviewed a collection of studies (Oliver & Tremblay, 2002; Kolkhorst, MacTaggart & Hansen, 1998; Haff, Kock, Potteiger, Kuphal, Magee, Green & Jakicic, 2000; Nassis, Williams & Chisnall, 1998; Brouns, Kovacs & Senden, 1998; Van Nieuwenhoven, Brummer & Brouns, 2000; Van Loon, Saris, Kruijshoop & Wagenmakers, 2000). The applications of this research are summarized below:
-Fifteen minutes may not be enough time to reap the benefits of ingesting carbohydrate prior to a workout.
-The claims made by the manufacturers of Sports Nutrition Bars are not always supported by science. An athlete may be better advised to choose a product that has KNOWN scientific benefits.
-Consuming Gatorlode or Gatorade before and during a workout may not enhance the amount lifted, force produced, or time to fatigue, but it can prevent muscle glycogen stores from declining.
-Maintaining this fuel source can have direct implications on a pool workout that closely follows a dryland/lifting session or vice versa. It allows the swimmers to come to workout with more “gas in the tank.”
-There has been some debate on the extent (if any) to which caffeine intake enhances endurance performance. Regardless of the controversy, many manufacturers of sports drinks, energy bars and gels have taken the initiative to add caffeine to their lists of ingredients.
-When given the choice, many athletes will drink more of a sports drink than water because they prefer the taste.
-The inclusion of caffeine in sports drinks may not affect gastrointestinal variables, but using a drink like Coca Cola to rehydrate the body after a tough workout may have an adverse effect on electrolyte balance.
-Since caffeine appears to increase magnesium and calcium loss in urine, rehydration should be accomplished with 6-8% carbohydrate-electrolyte sports drinks that are caffeine-free, rather than any drinks that contain caffeine and/or do not include electrolytes.
-The enhanced insulin response caused by the addition of protein to the carbohydrate-only drink can be achieved just as effectively by adding the same amount of extra carbohydrate.
-Consuming carbohydrate in the amount of 0.8 g/kg/hr (58 grams/hr for a 160 lb male) is not as effective in replenishing glycogen as consuming 1.2 g/kg/hr (87 grams/hr for a 160 lb male). In other words, 0.8 g/kg/hr (32 fl oz of Gatorade for a 160 lb male) is not enough to maximize the repletion process.

The Final Word
When it comes to choosing an energy bar, sports drink or gel, the most important things to know are: what is in it and how does it work? To help guide your athletes in their selection and use of bars, drinks and gels, offer these tips:

-Check for Effective Ingredients in Drinks. The post-exercise rehydration drink should contain Carbohydrate (30-80 g/L), Sodium (400-1000 mg/L), and Potassium, Chloride in small quantities. If a drink does not contain these ingredients, it may not be effective in providing energy and maintaining hydration.
-Drink Water with Bars. Drink at least 8-16oz (about 1 water bottle full) of water along with every energy bar you eat. For each packet of gel, take about 4oz of water. This helps keep your body hydrated while helping with the digestion of the product and the absorption of its contents.
-Experiment. Swimmers will differ in their preferences when it comes to flavor, texture, palatability (feel of food in the mouth) and digestive tolerance. Test energy bars and gels in real life settings. Avoid mixed bars immediately before and during workout, as the higher fat content may slow digestion and/or upset your stomach. The same applies for bars that are high in fiber, >5 g. Do not wait until meet day to take your first bite. In doing this, you risk experiencing adverse effects, which could include, among other possible side affects, nausea, cramping, and unanticipated bathroom visits!
-Beware of Extra “Stuff.” Many manufacturers claim that the extra vitamins and minerals they have conveniently added to their product are critical for the energy boost. The fact is that the energy a swimmer gets from a sports bar or gel comes from the calories it provides. While the importance of vitamins and minerals for proper body functioning cannot be denied, adequate amounts of these nutrients can be obtained by consuming a variety of foods from all of the foods groups on a daily basis. In addition, many of the “extra” ingredients supplied in these products may not be ones a competitive athlete wants or needs to ingest. Be extra cautious of herbal ingredients.
-Read the Ingredients. This tip is simple, but it is extremely important! You must be aware of what you are eating. Pay particular attention to the ingredients list on every individual package, and avoid products that may contain substances that you know or even think may appear on the prohibited substance list. Sometimes fortified products contain even more than what actually appears on the list. It is possible. It does happen. It is your responsibility.
-Eat “Real Food.” While bars, drinks and gels provide a convenient way to get the extra calories necessary to keep pace with the swimmer’s lifestyle, it is critical to eat a variety of foods from all of the food groups every day. Use energy bars and gels only to compliment a well-balanced diet when energy demands are high and “real food” is not an option.

For additional information on issues related to this review, visit the following web links:
-Laboratory Evaluation of Nutrition Bars:
http://www.consumerlab.com/results/nutbars.asp
-Laboratory Evaluation of Powders and Drinks:
http://www.consumerlab.com/results/nutdrinks.asp

Recommended Reading
-American College of Sports Medicine. (1996). American College of Sports Medicine position stand: Exercise and fluid replacement. Medicine and Science in Sports Medicine 28(1):i-vii.
-Coombes, J.S. and K.L. Hamilton. (2000). The effectiveness of commercially available sports drinks. Sports Medicine 29(3):181-209.
-Cunningham, J.J. (1997). Is potassium needed in sports drinks for fluid replacement during exercise? International Journal of Sport Nutrition 7:154-159.
-Gleeson, M. and N.C. Bishop. (2000). Modification of immune responses to exercise by carbohydrate, glutamine and anti-oxidant supplements. Immunology and Cell Biology 78:554-561.
-Green, G.A., D. H. Catlin and B. Starcevic. (2001). Analysis of over-the-counter dietary supplements. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine 11:254-259.
-Harvard University. (2000). Power in a bar or procey snack? Harvard Women’s Health Watch July:6.
-Leiper, J.B. (1998). Intestinal water absorption – implications for the formulation of rehydration solutions. International Journal of Sports Medicine 19:S129-S132.
-Maughan, R.J. (1998). The sports drink as a functional food: formulations for successful performance. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 57:15-23.
-Murray, R. (1998). Rehydration strategies – balancing substrate, fluid, and electrolyte provision. International Journal of Sports Medicine 19:S133-S135.
-Ryan, M. (1997). Sports drinks: research asks for reevaluation of current recommendations. Journal of the American Dietetics Association 97(suppl):S197- S198.
-Tufts University. (2001). Why most energy bars should not go home with most people. Tufts University Health and Nutrition Letter 19(5):6.

Heart Rate Monitoring

Reliance on a Heart Rate Monitor can seriously damage your performance
by Owen Anderson
From Peak Performance www.pponline.co.uk
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If you've decided to engage in the popular practice of performing a race or workout at a particular heart rate (or fixed percentage of max heart rate), you've eliminated a big problem: you won't have to worry about estimating your actual cycling or running speed during your exertion or try to judge the overall quality of your effort by how you feel

Your effort - at least your cardiovascular effort - will be precisely defined by the reading on the face of your heart-rate receiver. If you have an upscale monitor, any excessive deviation from your desired pulse will trigger warning whoops from your receiver; with a low-end model, you'll simply need to glance at your receiver every minute or so to find out if you're doing the right thing. You'll be able to cruise through your whole race or workout at the exact heart rate you want, without worries about your actual velocity

Using a monitor can be pretty relaxing; during workouts, you can focus intently on your running form and how you feel, listen for the occasional communiques from your receiver, and just let the miles roll. With a monitor, there's no need to be concerned about whether you're exceeding a level of cardiovascular effort which you know you can handle. However, in spite of this ease, precision, and comfort, if you use a monitor to measure the intensity of your workout or race, you're probably headed for trouble

'Cardiac drift'
The trouble will come in a variety of ways, but a key source of difficulty will be something called 'cardiac drift'. This phrase simply refers to your heart's perverse tendency to avoid a constant rate of functioning. More specifically, cardiac drift means that your heart rate tends to rise slowly but steadily as you exercise, even when you're cruising along at a constant pace. And the magnitude of this drift is usually more than just a pesky beat or two: heart rates can rise by as much as 20 beats per minute during constant-velocity efforts lasting less than 30 minutes!

There's no need to worry about why cardiac drift occurs, although staying well hydrated before and during your effort can partially control - but not eliminate - your heart's tendency to beat faster and faster (if your exertion is going to last for about 40 to 45 minutes or more and you're going to be sweating fairly profusely, you should try to thwart drift by drinking 12 ounces of fluid before you start and taking in three to four swallows of liquid every 10 minutes thereafter)If you monitor your efforts by using heart rate, you do need to consider what effect drift will have on your exertion. Basically, if you're locked into a particular heart rate for a race or long workout, drift will force you to run slower and slower as the effort proceeds, even though you have the ability to maintain your even pace. For example, if you're running, you might be cruising along fairly comfortably at seven-minute pace and a heart rate of 160, until drift sends your ticker up to 166. If you're too in love with your heart rate, you would ease off on your pace until you simmer your cardiac rate down to 160, and you would suddenly find yourself at 7:15 tempo, instead of the seven-minute effort which you actually could handle. In a race, that would leave you with a disappointing time; in a workout, you would spend less time practising your goal pace - and therefore develop less efficiency at that pace. Most of the time, it's better to just let heart rate rise slowly and steadily during your effort (as long as you're still feeling okay). Let fatigue - not the gadget on your wrist - be your guide to what you can do

A range of paces
Of course, another problem is that a specific heart rate - the one a coach has recommended for a race or workouts, or the one you've decided to use based on a recommendation in a newsletter or book - is going to produce a variety of different cycling speeds or running paces during your training. That's because heart rate is quite sensitive to environmental conditions - and your psychological state. Generally, your heart rate is going to be higher than usual when the weather is hotter or more humid - or when you're more tense and irritable

To see what can actually happen, let's say that you're a runner and you want to develop the ability to run a half-marathon at 90 per cent of your max heart rate - a laudable goal. And let's say that - in deference to the specificity of training principle - you've decided to run a variety of different workouts at that specific intensity. That sounds good in theory!

The first time out, on a fairly hot and humid day, you run for an hour at your desired heart rate - 90 per cent of maximal. Your average running pace for the whole workout turns out to be seven minutes per mile

The next time you train at 90 per cent, it's a perfect day for running - cool and dry. You zip along for an hour again at 90 per cent of max, but when you get through, you discover a startling fact: your pace was 6:45 per mile!

The third time out, it's hot and humid and windy. You're still stuck like glue on 90 per cent of max heart rate, though, and so your hour passes at a comparatively lethargic pace of 7:20 per mile (remember that when it's hot and humid, heart rate rises more quickly than usual, bringing you to a specific rate at a slower running pace; running against wind compounds the problem)

On your fourth encounter with 90 per cent of max heart rate, weather conditions are fine again, but you've just had a fight with your spouse. You're tense and excitable, sending your heart rate to higher-than-usual levels. So, you reach 90 per cent of max too easily. In fact, at 90 per cent, your running pace is only 7:30 per mileSuddenly it's race day, and by golly you're pretty sure you can handle the half-marathon at 90 per cent of max heart rate. But when you finish the race, are people going to ask you, 'Hey, what heart rate did you have out there?' Or will they ask you about your time? And are you going to care more about your heart rate or your actual finishing time?

Heart versus legs
The point is that if you have even an ounce of competitive spirit, you're going to be more concerned about your overall performance time than the rate at which your heart was flapping during the race. Paradoxically, though, you've been training to run the race with a particular heart rate - not in a particular time. You're at the mercy of your heart - and that expensive strap you've got around your chest. Wouldn't it make more sense to choose a sensible goal pace for your half-marathon (say about 10 to 15 seconds slower per mile than 10K velocity), a pace which will bring you to the finish line in the time that you want, and then learn to handle that pace under a variety of different conditions during training? Practising that pace will give you the precise neuromuscular coordination and the exact leg-muscle functioning that you'll want on race day. Who cares if your heart strays above some pre-defined rate of ticking? Believe me, it will be none the worse for wear on the following day

Basically, you have to make a decision about your training. You know that environmental conditions and your psychological state are going to vary on different workout days. Higher temperatures and humidity will send your heart rate up, as will tension and anxiety; cool weather and calmness will bring it down. You can stick with a specific heart rate - and therefore let actual running pace wander all over the map. Or you can stick with a specific pace - and let heart rate vary enormously.

Which is better?
Obviously, sticking with a pace and letting heart rate vary is preferable. As mentioned, attaching yourself to a pace teaches your leg muscles and nervous system to function more effectively at that goal speed. The more you practise the pace, the better will be their coordination and efficiency - at that pace. The less you practise the pace, the lower will be coordination and economyIn contrast, the heart's coordination and economy do not vary. The heart doesn't need to practise beating away at 90 per cent of maximal to get good at it; it already has that down pat. It's just as efficient at 90 per cent of max as it is at 87 per cent of max - or at 93 per cent

Don't worry about your heart getting tiredBasically, your heart is pretty much along for the ride. It will do what your leg muscles tell it to do (within limits, of course; the legs can't tell the heart to beat faster than max heart rate, for example). If your heart's been whacking away at 93 per cent of max for a good deal of time, it will never shout down to the leg muscles, 'Hey chaps! You've been pedalling (or scampering) for long enough. I'm getting tired, so will you please slow down?'

In fact, your legs will become fatigued far faster than your heart does. The heart will slow down if the leg muscles slow down, not the other way around. That's why the focus of your training should be on your leg muscles - that is, on the pace created by the leg muscles. Your goal should be to develop greater fatigue resistance in those leg muscles at your desired running paces or cycling speeds. You don't have to worry about the heart getting fatigued: that old fellow can pound away at high rates for long periods of time. Your leg muscles are your weak linkAnd yet training based on heart rate makes the heart dominant and the leg muscles subordinate - just the opposite of what should occur! If you really want to run a race at a goal pace, practise that pace, not a heart rate. You can let your heart rates roll around a bit

After all, the heart is an imperfect indicator of what's happening to your leg muscles. An increase in heart rate might indicate increased stress in your leg muscles, or it might just represent tension, drift, or the fact that a little more blood has settled in the skin on a hot day. Don't enshrine an imperfect indicator as the absolute dictator of your training and racingWhat is threshold heart rate?

While we're on the topic of heart rates, we should point out that there's an incredible amount of information floating around about how to train with a heart monitor, but - unfortunately - a lot of it is worthless. For example, you might read or hear that the best training intensity for raising lactate threshold - the key indicator of running performance - is 82 to 88 per cent of max heart rate. If someone tells you that, you've learned something important: never trust what they tell you about your training

That's because - first - there's no scientific evidence that this is true. In fact, the available research says that - for runners - running at 10-K pace (which is often around 90 to 93 per cent of max heart rate) is the most time-efficient way to boost threshold - and the method that produces the biggest increases. Second, while it's true that training at your threshold can probably raise it pretty well, too (that's why 'tempo workouts' are so darned good for you), threshold heart rate varies considerably between individuals. For example, for some athletes threshold occurs at 65 per cent of max heart rate. In others, it's at 75 per cent. Experienced, competitive athletes often check in at 85 to 88 per cent or so, and some of the elite Kenyan runners don't reach threshold until they get to 92 to 94 per cent of max

The bottom line?
To lift threshold, you're better off forgetting about heart rate and training at 10-K pace or a little slower (if you're a runner, 10-minute intervals at 10-K pace represent a particularly good way to train). If you're a cyclist, swimmer, or cross-country skier, it's wise to carry out 10-minute intervals at an intensity you could sustain for no more than 30 to 35 minutes or so

Some coaches get really high-tech and measure heart rates at various blood-lactate levels. They then define workouts as 'easy' or 'aerobic' if they're at a heart rate below the rate which produces a lactate concentration of 2 mmol/L, and they say that 'threshold' workouts are at the heart rate which lifts lactate to 4 mmol/L, while 'hard' efforts are at heart rates associated with lactate above 4 mmol. Their role is then to merely find the right balance of easy, threshold, and hard efforts

That's great, except for three little things: (1) If training is going well, the paces associated with 2 and 4 mmol/L of lactate will increase steadily over time, so finger pricking for lactate detection will have to take place on a regular basis. (2) Threshold doesn't always occur at 4 mmol/L. Some athletes reach threshold at 2 mmol, while others don't hit it until 7. For those individuals, training at 4 may be too heavy or too light to be a real threshold session. (3) Heart rate varies according to environment and mood, but threshold does NOT follow heart rate up and down. Threshold is a function of how hard the muscles are working - not how fast the heart is beating!

How hard are you training?
Another increasingly popular practice is to use a heart monitor to assess the overall intensity of a training 'cycle' (which often turns out to be about a week of training). There are various ways to do this, including the unique 'Banister Plan' developed by exercise physiologist Eric Banister at the University of British Columbia in Canada

To use the Banister system, you simply determine your average heart rate during each workout. From your average workout heart rate, you subtract your resting heart rate to obtain a number we'll call 'A'. The rest is quite easy. From your maximum heart rate, you subtract your resting heart rate to obtain a second number - 'B'. Finally, you divide A by B and multiply the result by the length (in minutes) of your workout

Here's a specific example: Let's say that Wilma rides her bicycle for 30 minutes at a heart rate of 150. Her resting heart rate is 50, so A = 150 - 50 = 100

Wilma's max heart rate is 200, so B = 200 - 50 = 150. A/B = 100/150 = .67, the relative intensity of her workout. .67 X 30 minutes = 20.1, the overall value of her training session

If you've been following along closely, you'll note what a logical way this is to determine your workout value. The number 'A' is simply a measure of how far you climb above your resting heart rate during a workout, and the number 'B' is an assessment of how far above the resting rate you could go if your workout were truly maximal. That means that dividing A by B automatically calculates the intensity of your workout, or - more specifically - how close you are to working full-tilt during your effort

If A and B are identical, it means that you're at maximal heart rate throughout your session - you're working as hard as you possibly can. On the other hand, if you barely climb above resting heart rate during your training session, A will be a very small number and the workout will have a low value - unless you train for many hours. Multiplying A/B by the number of minutes in your workout simply allows you to reckon the overall impact (value) of the session - and to compare one workout with another. In Wilma's case, for example, 23 minutes of cycling with a heart rate of 180 will have about the same value as 30 minutes at a heart rate of 150 (figure it out!)

A new system created by German scientists keeps track of training stress in a different way: their system simply counts the total number of heart beats in a 24-hour period. The thinking is that the quantity of beats indicates the total amount of stress an athlete is experiencing, including both the stress of physical training and stress from other sources. The Germans reckon that, at least with elite athletes, a hard day has more than 105,000 beats (they must be working with athletes with low pulse rates, because that's an average of just 73 beats per minute), a moderate day has around 85,000 beats, and an off day would feature just 72,000 ticksOf course, those are somewhat arbitrary numbers; one can imagine that some 100,000-beat days might be pretty serene (you could get to 100,000 just by taking a long, rejuvenating walk at the beach, for example). Also, there will be a lot of variation from person to person; a given number of heart beats might be nothing for one athlete but a huge load for another

But a bigger problem is that the heart-rate counting systems - including both the Banister and German programmes - do not take into account the specificity of training needed for a particular event. For example, let's say that two runners, Joe and Joanne, have equal resting and max heart rates, can run the 5K in about 19 minutes, and hope to set new PBs of 18:36 (six-minute per mile pace) in the near future. However, Joe and Joanne develop completely different training plans. Believing that high mileage is the answer, Joe trains for 600 minutes per week at a modest average heart rate of 140 beats per minute. Convinced that high intensity will help her run faster 5Ks, Joanne cuts back on her volume of training but raises her average running speed, ending up with just 120 minutes of training per week at an average heart rate of 170. A large share of Joanne's mileage is completed at around six-minute per mile tempo - the exact velocity she'll need to set her PB, while the bulk of Joe's work consists of tortoise-like trottingAccording to the Banister - or any - heartbeat-counting system, Joe is training 'better' (he is doing more total work, with 84,000 heart beats worth of training per week, versus just 20,400 beats for Joanne). However, Joanne is much more likely to run a faster 5K. She is focussing on the specific pace she needs for her new PB, while Joe's mega-mileage is not necessary for - nor specific to - 5-K racing

The key pitfall associated with using a heart monitor to classify the intensity of your workouts and assess the overall difficulty of your training is that it can place the heart on too high a pedestal. Learning to cycle or run at a goal velocity is often ignored. In addition, your heart rate during certain types of workouts - hill repetitions or high-speed, short-distance intervals, for example - is irrelevant, so you shouldn't even be worrying about it! Likewise, you don't need heart rate to plan VO2max-building workouts; you can simply use your current 5-K pace (or, for cyclists, 95 per cent of the velocity you could sustain for only 12 minutes). And, as mentioned above, utilising heart rate is a notoriously inaccurate way to try to lift lactate threshold, unless you have a lactate analyser and can determine precise blood-lactate concentrations at different heart rates. Even then, cardiac drift and changes in psychological state and environmental conditions will 'uncouple' lactate threshold from a chosen heart rate

What monitors are good forI've been pretty hard on heart-rate monitors so far, but that doesn't mean I think they're worthless. In fact, one of my favourite training sessions, which I call a '171' workout, is carried out with a heart monitor. In this session, which I use to build endurance after a layoff period (and which I utilise when I'm not preparing for a specific race), I simply try to exercise at 90 per cent of maximal heart rate for 60 minutes or so. Since my max heart rate is 191, this turns out to be 171 beats per minute (hence the name 171). Recognising cardiac drift, I let heart rate inch up to 178 or so without concern in the latter part of the session. I don't worry at all about actual speed of movement but just try to work hard and keep heart rate up. The lack of concern about velocity lets me really relax and focus on form, and when the 60 minutes are over, I've had a great workout. Other athletes successfully use monitors to prevent themselves from exercising too intensely during easy workouts, setting their upper limit at 70 to 75 per cent of maximum or so

I never bother to use a heart rate monitor when I engage in cross training (I know that my heart gets enough of a stimulus to improve from my usual running workouts, so I don't worry when I climb aboard a bike), but heart-monitor usage during alternative activities raises an interesting point: your max heart rate when you do something other than running will usually be lower than your maximal running heart rate. In fact, it's often 5 to 6 per cent lower. For me, that would mean that my max heart rate on the bike would be about 181, not 191, and a 90 per cent of max session would put me at 162, not 171. In fact, trying to get to 171 might actually induce quick, excessive fatigue and shorten the overall exertion

How to work out your max
If you want to actually reckon your max heart rate on the bike, it's easy: simply warm up with 10 to 15 minutes of easy pedalling, and then ride 'full-blast' at nearly maximal power output (while maintaining an optimal rpm of 90 to 95 or so) for two minutes. 'Spin' easily against little resistance for 60 to 75 seconds, and then pedal at maximal capacity for two more minutes. Your heart rate should almost 'top out' after this second two-minute surge (make sure you get your doctor's permission before you try this, however). To determine max heart rate while running, warm up and then run 800 metres nearly full-blast, jog easily for one minute, and then run 800 metres at top speed. You should reach max at the end of the second 800 (again, get your doctor's permission before trying)

The bottom line - or rather the bottom lines?
If you can avoid the pitfalls associated with heart-monitor training, using a heart monitor can be enjoyable and helpful, but bear in mind that even if you use your heart monitor to classify all your workouts as hard, moderate, or easy - and even after your monitor has told you whether you've had a hard or easy day, week, or month, your monitor can never tell you how you should be training. Your monitor is only a device which collects data; it's not a programme plannerAnd the information your heart monitor collects refers specifically only to your heart; it doesn't tell you whether your leg muscles are really ready to handle the rigours of your goal speed: only training at a specific pace can do that.

Owen Anderson

The Physiology of XC Skiing

The Physiology Of XC Skiing
By Stephan Sieler
From the MAPP http://home.hia.no/~stephens/
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My approach to learning and doing a new sport starts with a lot of reading about the specific demands and physiology of the event. The basics of any endurance sport are similar, but I like to look for the details. Fortunately, there is a great deal of research on the physiology of cross country skiing. Most of it has been performed here in Europe and Scandinavia, because of the high level of participation in the sport in this region of the world. A lot of the work I have been reading is written in English, which is good. Some is in Norwegian, which is ok. And one useful dissertation I have in my hands right now is written in Danish, which is pretty darn challenging. So let's just say that studying XC has been good for my language skills!

What does an elite skier look like?
Good question. On average, top class skiers are between 27 and 29 years old when they reach their peak, but the standard of deviation is 4 years. This means that you can see Olympic medallists in their early 20s to late 30s! One important point which speaks to the need for patience and persistence is this: No junior skier has ever won an Olympic gold or World Championship. It takes years of training to achieve the highest levels of performance.

The interesting thing about XC is that there is no "perfect" body type. In sports like swimming, distance running, and rowing, observing an assembly of the elite often looks like a clone festival. In contrast, World champion male skiers have ranged in height from 5' 6 (1.68 m) to 6'6" (2.0 m). The elite skiers usually has little body fat, but not to an extreme. As a group, elite XC skiers are heavier than distance runners, but lighter than rowers. Female elite skiers tend to have a lower body mass index (mass in kg divided by height in m2) than non-athletic women of the same age.

Fiber Type Composition
What about how they look under their skin? Type I muscle fibers are predominate in the leg muscles of elite skiers, but there is considerable variability even among the elite. In the normal population the fiber composition in the vastus lateralis (a thigh muscle that is often biopsied in athletes) will approximate a 50-50 ratio between fast and slow fiber types. The fast fibers will be made up of a mixture of type II a and II b fibers. In elite skiers the percentages are more like 66% (62-75% in different studies) slow and the remainder type II a. The "pure" fast fiber, the type II b subtype, is practically non-existent in well trained skiers (and other endurance athletes). This is due to type II b to II a conversion (II a fibers are still "fast", but with much greater fatigue resistance). Now, in comparison, biopsy studies on elite distance runners suggest a slightly higher slow twitch percentage among the elite runners (78-79%). Perhaps it is adaptive for skiers to possess a higher type II a percentage, due to the varying terrain and non steady-state conditions that comprise XC racing.

Unlike running and cycling, XC is a