The Physiology and Anatomy of Some Relevant Sex Differences, With Reference to Rowers

Female Athletes – The Physiology and Anatomy of Some Relevant Sex Differences, With Reference to Rowers
By Prof. Craig Sharp
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1.1 Introduction

This section will concentrate mainly on those anatomical and physiological aspects which influence physical performance in dance, physical activity or sport, with a brief introduction to sexual dimorphism, or how we become two sexes. The important point to grasp in any description of such physical differences is that, although on average one sex may have one attribute more highly developed than the other, there is very broad overlap. The average height of British men and women is 5’9” (1.7m) and 5’4” (1.6m) respectively. Yet very many women (e.g. rowers, basketball players) are taller than the male average, and vise versa. And to give a performance example, the best male Marathon runners in the world run the distance in about 2 hours and 6 minutes, and their female counterparts run under 2 hours and 20 minutes. Nevertheless, those elite women runners will beat all but a very small percentage of all male marathoners. In its day, the East German women’s athletics team could have beaten the men’s teams of many of the smaller nations.

For much of this paper, I am talking about average differences between groups of men and women. It is important to remember that much of the differences between people in general relate to the genetic hand that they are dealt at conception. To take one example, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max). If one were to measure this value in the laboratory on a random selection of 100 20-year old untrained but healthy young women who were all the same height and weight, it could be found to vary between 1.5 and 3.5 liters of oxygen used per minute. The reasons for the wide range would be largely genetic. And if one took the lower quarter of the sample, and subjected them to two years of Olympic-style rowing training, they might improve as much as ~25% - say to about 2 liters of oxygen per minute. In other words, even with training, they would not come near to the better genetically endowed upper group. This aspect of genetics is not a fact to get depressed about, especially in an activity needing several attributes such as rowing. It simply means that one has to identify one’s strengths, and use them to the full. In the example just quoted, it may very well be those with the low VO2 Max might be at the upper end of the scale in terms of muscle strength and local muscle endurance.

One can alter one’s physical aspects very considerably, but always in the context of one’s genetic programme – which in physical terms is mediated through anatomy and physiology.

1.2 Gender Formation

Gender aspects as a whole in sport and exercise, embrace genetic, hormonal, anatomical, physiological, psychological and sociological factors. The term ‘sexual dimorphism’ refers to the two sexes which we grow into, triggered initially by genetic and then hormonal factors operating on a fetus.

Gender is coded for in a specific pair of the 23 human chromosomes. Termed the ‘sex chromosomes’ they are designated as X and Y. XX codes for women and XY for men. It is important to note that all mammals are basically female unless specifically masculinised (vice versa with birds, in whom the males have the pair of identical sex chromosomes). In humans the sexing process is initiated in the sixth week of fetal life. If the chromosomes are XX, then the female development automatically follows the pre-destined programme; i.e. the outer layer of the two small clumps of cells which form the undifferentiated sex gland or gonad, begin their development into an ovary. A double set of tubules known as the Mullerian ducts then form the fallopian tubes, uterus and upper vagina.

However, following coded instructions from the male Y-chromosome, the medulla or middle of the undifferentiated gonads is stimulated into becoming the male sex glands or testes. Within days, these start to secrete two hormones. The ‘male’ testosterone promotes growth of another tubular system known as the Wolffian ducts to form the male tubing, in the form of the epididymis, vas deferens and ejaculatory duct, all concerned with the passage of semen. The second hormone secreted at this time by the embryonic and still abdominal testes is ‘Mullerian inhibitor’ which actively inhibits growth of the Mullerian ducts. So, not only is the male tubing actively promoted by one hormone, testosterone, but the embryonic female tubing is actively suppressed by another hormone, the Mullerian inhibitor.

So much for the internal genitalia, what of the external? These in the early embryo consist of two cellular aggregates in the pubic region. If there is no Y-chromosome, then these will form into a vagina and a clitoris respectively. But, if Y-induced testosterone is present, then the would be vagina will heal up, as it were and form the scrotum. And instead of a clitoris, a penis will form. Note that the skin of both the scrotum and the external vagina is similarly pigmented, wrinkled and hairy; also the scrotum has a central line (the ‘median raphe’), which is where the original vagina healed over (Money and Erhardt 1971 Sharp 1997).

1.3 Anatomical Aspects

1.3.1 Body Dimensions

The average British woman is 1.6m (5’4”) tall, compared to the 1.7m (5’9”) for men, but whatever the height of a race or tribe, men are about 7% taller. This applies also virtually throughout the animal kingdom, with the main exception of the spotted hyena, in which the bitches are larger – probably and evolutionary adaptation to the fact that the males have a tendency to cannibalize the pups. Girls may be briefly larger – and stronger – between 10 and 12 years, due to their earlier growth spurt, which occurs just over two years earlier in girls. By around 13, the boys forge ahead on average as their growth spurt carries them up to about 10% beyond the girls in many of the physical dimensions.

1.3.2 Upper Body

Men end up with broader shoulders, longer arms, and narrower hips, both in terms of absolute measures, and relative to body height. The shoulder and arm difference usually leads to men being relatively stronger than women in the upper body compared to the lower, and the longer arms give better biomechanical leverage, which is shown to particular effect in throwing events and racket games, where the terminal velocity of the hand, or the head of the racquet, is the critical factor in determining the speed of missiles leaving either. Longer arms – and broader shoulders – also give men a leverage advantage in rowing and canoeing events.

Many women tend to have more of a “valgus angle” to their arms than men, whereby their arm is not as straight as men’s. That is, if the arm is held by the side with palms facing forwards, their lower arm angles away from the body. It is one reason why many women tend to throw objects, such as balls, stones and snowballs ‘round arm’. The feature is due to a greater male development of the lateral humeral epicondylar cartilage at the elbow. This cartilage has receptor sites specifically programmed to respond to testosterone at puberty, and acts to straighten out the male arm. A woman with a pronounced valgus or carrying angle, who wishes to become a good javelin thrower, might find herself predisposed to elbow injuries, and the same may apply to a lesser extent in rowing. Of the three main athletic throwing events, shot, javelin and discus, and taking into account the different weights of implements which the two sexes throw, women are furthest behind in the javelin and closest to men in the discus. The latter is what one might expect, given that women’s greater spinal flexibility allows more rotation, which is especially important in the discus event.

1.3.3 Lower Body

The broader hips of women, both in absolute measurements in many cases and indeed as a proportion of body height, result from a broader pelvis (due t its cells in turn bearing receptor sites responsive to oestrogen). This leads in general to a woman’s femur having to make a greater angle medially (the Q-angle) as it inclines towards her knee, which is the main reason why many untrained women throw their heals out when they run. In athletic clubs, such a running style is modified, if necessary.

However, a more important implication of this greater medial angulation of the femur relates to the angle of force of the powerful quadriceps muscles as they insert onto the patella or kneecap. The bulk of this muscle group is located laterally, i.e. on the outer side of the thigh. Thus when it contracts it exerts a strong ‘bowstring’ effect on the patella tending to pull it sideways (known as ‘sub-laxation’), out of the intercondylar groove on the femur in which it normally tracks. This misalignment may lead to excessive wear in the cartilage underside of the patella (the retro-patellar cartilage), resulting in the aching condition of ‘chondromalacia patellae’. Although often known as ‘runner’s knee’, it may occur in rowers, and it is more common in broader hipped women.

This may also tend to happen in women with a tendency to ‘knock knees’ who have too large a ‘Q-angle’, which is measured as follows: if you draw a line from the anterior supra-iliac spine (the front of your hip bone) to the centre of your patella, and another one from the centre of your patella to your ‘tibial tuberocity’ (the bony bump just below your knee), the angle between these two lines make with each other id the Q-angle. In men it should be less than 10degrees and in women less than 15 degrees. If it is greater than these, this creates increases the mechanical advantage of the outside quads, as mentioned above, and it lessens the ability of the one inner quadriceps to counter the bowstring force – the vastus medialis. Thus, overlarge Q-angles lead to bad patellar alignment and tracking in the groove, and increase the possibility of patellar sub-luxation and of chondromalacia patellae. So, ideally a women rower should have, proportionally reasonably narrow hips, and fairly straight legs.

The vastus medialis just mentioned is one member of the quadriceps muscle group, which inserts into the patella from the opposite direction – medially rather than laterally. And it acts to stabilize the patella in its groove, and to counter the bowstring effect to some extent. If you put your hand on the inner side of your knee, and slowly straighten your leg into full extension, then you will fee the vastus medialis tensing up as it comes into action just before full extension. Thus, exercises to strengthen the medialis must always involve straightening the leg fully, and slowly, so that there is no swing effect initiated by the other quadriceps muscles. Straightening the leg while seated, and holding it hard isometrically (i.e. tensed but not moving) will also strengthen medialis. This should be done 5 times on each side, and held for 10-15 seconds, two or three times daily. Otherwise a visit to the ‘quads station’ of a multigym will provide effective training.

1.3.4 Body Fat

Young women have a considerably greater percentage of their body fat, compared to men. Expressing body fat as a percentage is not especially reliable, but can be a useful rough guide. In my laboratories at the BOMC and elsewhere, the leanest subjects we have measured, mainly elite distance runners and gymnasts, have been in the range of from 5-8% for men, with very few equivalent women below 16%, and ranging up to 21% (compared to a normal student population of between 12-18% for men, and 22-30% for women). Until the age of around 10, there is little difference in body fat between boys and girls, but when both sexes go through puberty, the boys tend to lower their fat percentage, and the girls tend to gain fat. The gain in the women is a natural hormonally induced part of the growth process. The difference in body fat between the ‘average’ young man and woman is in the order of 70 000 kilocalories (or 300 000 kilojoules), which is just about the energy cost of producing a full term human infant. Rowers tend to vary from 18-25% for heavyweight women, with some lightweights being lower. The men tend to range from 10-15% again with some lightweights being lower.

Body fat is primarily an energy store. And men and women tend to store their fat differently. In men, the main fat store is in the abdomen, so a fat man will have a varying degree of ‘beer belly’, even though he may have quite slim legs. For women the fat deposits are thighs, hips, bust and back of the arm. It makes sense for women not to store fat on their abdomen, which becomes full during pregnancy.

This gender difference in average body fat certainly aids survival in extremes of cold and starvation, indeed Scott of the Antarctic may well have reached the South Pole had he and the team been women. It often leads to better performance by women in long distance sea, lake and loch swims, in many of which women hold the all-comers records. In part this is because the greater amount of fat acts as an insulation under the skin, and in part it floats women higher in the water, as fat is lighter than water. (Drop a piece of lean meat and a piece of fat – such as butter – in water; and see which sinks and which floats!). Floating higher makes for easier swimming. However the greater fat is a handicap in weight bearing activities involving running or jumping. This is one of several pressures towards a degree of female leanness, as in lightweight rowing, which may be very harmful if taken to extremes. In rowing and canoeing, extra weight lowers the racing shell, and will increase its surface area, and hence friction. Nevertheless, the ‘weight-supported’ rower can afford to carry an extra kg or two of fat, compared to the runner of gymnast! In women, this may help to minimize or delay the onset of sports osteoporosis – which is seen more in lightweight rowers, as is the associated amenorrhea, or absence of periods.

The gender difference in body shape, much of it accounted for by body fat distribution, leads to many women having a lower centre of gravity, and may be part of the reason for their better balance – as seen on the balance beam in gymnastics, a discipline for women but not for men, and possible shown in sailing, where women crew members are often noted as being better balanced in their movements around the boat.

A certain degree of fat is essential to the body; partly this is in terms of acting as a packing material around vital organs, the ovaries for example, and for helping keep the eye firmly in its socket. Also, fat is important in hormone-processing. It is thought that one reason why women who are very thin stop menstruating is that they do not have enough fat t activate their osterogen precursors.

1.3.5 Flexibility

Women have greater flexibility than men, as may be seen in asking a group of untrained men and women to planter flex their foot, i.e. ‘point their toe’. This enhanced flexibility, is of course, much featured in gymnastics and many forms of dance (and in modern circuses e.g. Chinese National Circus, and the ‘Cirque du Soleil’). In part the flexibility of women is due to slight differences in their joints, and in part it may be due to the presence of the hormone ‘relaxin’, which appears to act on the ground substance of collagen, the vital structural element in ligaments and tendon, imparting a greater degree of elasticity. Relaxin comes into its own during childbirth, when it has a major function in acting on the symphasis pubis joint. This is where the two pubic bones meet each other at the bony floor of the pelvis – between the legs. Normally there is very little space between the two pubic bones, nor do they normally move, but under the influence of relaxin, the connecting collagen may allow a considerable widening between the pubic bones, thus enlarging the birth canal. The main application in rowing is hamstring flexibility, which may be associated with low back pain injury if the hamstrings are too inflexible.

1.4 Physiological Aspects

1.4.1 Heart, Lungs and Blood – the Cardio-Respiratory System

Women have proportionally less blood (65ml/kg bodyweight compared to 75ml) than men, and lower hemoglobin concentration (13.9g/100ml compared to 15.8g). Working maximally aerobically, women need 7 liters of blood to carry a liter of oxygen, compared to men’s 6 liters, yet proportionally their hearts are about 8% smaller, although maximum heart rates are the same. The net effect is on the maximal oxygen uptake, which at elite rowing levels is up to ~75ml/kg bodyweight for men, and ~65ml for women. It is this VO2 Max which is responsible for ‘aerobic fitness’ or overall stamina – the ability to train on land or water for one to two hours – or more. The other important aerobic aspect is the anaerobic threshold, which is the rate of work which a rower can sustain without incurring a sudden marked rise in blood lactic acid. This threshold indicates the rate of work which can be sustained for relatively long periods. The anaerobic threshold is usually accompanied by a heart rate within a set range, so can be used as a training guide. The overall aerobic sex difference matters little, in that women rowers do not compete with men.

1.4.2 Muscle

Between 10 and 11, many girls are stronger than their boy peers, but boys end up on average stronger. This is partly because the cross sectional area of their muscles is greater, through androgen hormone effects, among other factors – and partly due to the longer levers of their limb bones. There is little difference in muscle quality between the sexes; both tend to generate about 30 Newton’s of force per square cm of untrained muscle tissue. 30 Newton’s is a force of about 3kg per square cm.

In terms of muscle endurance, women appear to have better low-grade local muscle endurance, for example on repetitions of 50% of their maximum muscle force. This may be of benefit in sports such as swimming, cycling and indeed rowing, which consist of very large numbers of relatively low-grade contractions. And each is a sport where women approach closer to men’s performances than weight bearing sports such as running –where the force at each stride are much greater. Although not all related to rowing, it is of interest to briefly note that women have much better fine manipulative skills, e.g. as in keyboards, or electronic assembly.

1.4.3 Heat Regulation

Exercise such as rowing generates considerable heat. About two-thirds of food energy appears unavoidably as heat in muscular work, and this must be lost almost as fast as it is generated, or collapse from heat stroke would occur. We live closer to heat death than to cold death. Normal core body temperature is around 37 degrees, but much above 43 degrees may be quickly fatal. To lose heat in exercise, men tend to sweat more per square meter of skin surface than women (e.g. 800ml/hour/m2 compared to 600ml/hour/m2). However, women tend to loose more heat by radiation. This benefits women in very humid conditions, where sweat cannot evaporate very readily into air already saturated with water vapor. Under such conditions, and not being so reliant on sweating, women tend to radiate more of their heat away, through a warm skin, red with dilated blood vessels radiating the heat away like tiny electric fires.. Men benefit in dry heat, as their sweat can be evaporated. Sweat which drops of is simply wasted, as far as cooling is concerned, because it is when the sweat changes from liquid into water vapor (i.e. steam), that the heat energy is taken form the skin, or, more accurately, from the warm blood circulating through the skin.

So, women thermo regulate better in wet heat, and men better in dry heat. Men will tend to be more severely affected on a hot humid course, and women on a hot dry one. In life threatening environments, however, their greater sweat production implies that mend tend to die quicker than women from dehydration, for example in desert conditions, or if shipwrecked in mid ocean (and having to ‘take to the boats’ for too long). In both sexes, sweat patterns change through exercise and training, covering more extensive areas of skin, and occurring sooner. It seems surprising, that fit people sweat sooner, as dancers or athletes notice at parties or receptions. In both sexes the level of salts (or electrolytes) in sweat drop markedly, the higher the fitness levels. In other words the fitter you are, the better you conserve your body salts.

1.5 Bibliography and References

Most texts of exercise physiology have chapters on gender issues, but a very good comprehensive account is: Christine Wells. Women, Sport and Performance: A Physiological Perspective. Human Kinetics. 1995

Money, J and Erhardt, A. Man, Woman, Boy, Girl. John Hopkins. 1971

Mittwoch, U. Genetics of Sex Determination. Academic Press. 1976.

Muir, R. Textbook of Pathology. RNM McSween and K Whaley (eds). Edward Arnold. 1992. Chapter 22.

Sharp, NCC. The New Sexual Dimorphism. B. J. Sports Med. 1997. 31, 82-83.

Sharp, NCC. Body fat and weight management. Chapter 6 in Bean A and Wellington P (eds) Sports Nutrition for Women. A and C Black. 1995.

Wilmore, JH and Costill, DL. Physiology of Sport and Exercise. Human Kinetics. 1994. Chapter 19, Gender Issues and the female athlete.

Barbie Doesn’t Play Sports

Barbie Doesn’t Play Sports
By Tim Wakeham
http://www.training-conditioning.com/2007/03/barbie_doesnt_play_sports.htm
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How can you get female athletes to embrace their weight-room workouts and throw away their desire to look like thin fashion models? The keys are to listen, understand, and educate.
"Do you want to be a runway model or a healthy competitive athlete?" I have asked this question to many female athletes. I ask the question because, when I listen to their words, they say, "I want to be strong and explosive." The problem is that when I listen to their actions, some say, "I want to look like a thin fashion model."

One of my goals as a strength and conditioning coach is to inspire my athletes to do progressively more work in the weight room. The combination of progressive overload with the genetics of most competitive athletes eventually results in a small increase of lean body mass. Research suggests that increases in lean body mass begin around week six. But it is common for the female athletes I coach to stop by my office for a meeting long before week six.

Meetings usually start with, "Red, I am worried that I am gaining weight and getting too big." I sometimes want to smile because I know that a majority of women do not have the genetic predisposition for Ms. Olympia-size muscles, and certainly they won't be showing increased muscle mass by week three. I don't smile, though, because I know that body weight and cosmetic shape are no laughing matter for most females.

The conflict between the duty of strength coaches to increase lean body mass in female athletes and many females' desire for social acceptance through thinness can be a difficult issue. How can strength coaches deal with this tug-of-war? In this article I'll offer some specific strategies I use at Michigan State to motivate our female athletes to embrace improvements in lean body mass.
LISTEN, ACKNOWLEDGE, TEACHWhen it comes to most issues, the more communication you can share, the less the conflict. Communication on this issue starts with the strength and conditioning coach acknowledging how focused many females are on slender shape and social acceptance, as opposed to physical competitive readiness.

Listening to female athletes over the years has been an interesting education for me. The biggest surprise has been how much time and energy they spend thinking and talking about food, diet, body weight, and cosmetic shape. For some women, these topics are a constant preoccupation. Based on my experience, I believe that if four female athletes went out for lunch to discuss a team issue, each could recount what the others ate and how they looked in their clothes with greater clarity than the topic discussed.

This may seem silly to a coach who thinks about body shape, oh, maybe once a year when he has to put on that suit and tie for the year-end awards banquet, or who comes from a football background where bigger is better. That's why it's important to commit to hearing and understanding females' thoughts and feelings regarding their desire for thinness. This is the first step to making a connection from which they will listen, trust, and commit to our goals and plans.
Along with listening to my athletes and acknowledging that they may constantly struggle with body image issues, I try to teach them why this problem exists. Females are taught from a very early age that attractiveness, acceptance, personal happiness, and self worth are based on a very thin shape. The message is simple: If you are thin, you will be confident, well-liked, and successful. They see it in every advertisement, women's magazine, and celebrity photo shoot.
I educate my athletes that they are being sold this unrealistic body ideal by marketers pushing products. The diet, fashion, and cosmetic industries take advantage of female body image insecurities through the promotion of an "ideal" body shape. The ideal shape is usually small muscled and thin. This distorted social norm is then linked to an extensive list of products to make your "perfect body" dreams come true. It is important to teach female athletes awareness about this deceit and how they are being manipulated.

Furthermore, it is not uncommon for fashion models' and celebrities' pictures to be digitally altered. In 2003, GQ magazine buffed, trimmed, and altered actress Kate Winslet's photos in order to flatten her stomach and thin her legs. Winslet said the editors reduced the size of her legs by a third. Cover and photo shoots are often the culmination of weeks of personal preparation—along with professional lighting, make-up, costume design, air brushing, and computer manipulations.

It is unrealistic and unwise for women to use these fantasy advertisements as role models. This is especially true for athletes, whose goals are health and triumph, not product sales. But the reality is that it's extremely hard for females to ignore all these images.

So we talk about the issue. I listen attentively to the female athlete who wants to talk about her fears, no matter how many times I've heard the same story. I try to empower each young woman by educating them on how the body image phenomenon has arisen. And I try to teach them that confidence and acceptance comes from within.

At the same time, I tell them not to give themselves permission to succumb to these unrealistic social pressures. Rather, they should embrace their genetic gifts and physically prepare to dominate. Changing their focus is their challenge, and I tell them I believe in their ability to do so.

FEARS VS. FACTSWhen women are afraid that strength training will cause them to bulk up and dramatically change their body size, one of the best things I can do is provide them with scientific evidence that this is probably not going to happen.

I start with this: Studies show that over a nine-week period, most women who engage in resistance training gain a little over one pound of lean body mass, while experiencing a corresponding decrease in body fat of just under two percent. I usually repeat that. A mere one pound!

Females who weight train may see muscular size increases of 20 to 30 percent, depending upon body type and other genetic factors. However, increases do not appear to meaningfully affect external girth measurements, because they simultaneously lose body fat. Of two studies reviewed, one showed no overall change in girths and the other showed less than a quarter of an inch.

Research clearly shows that a majority of females will gain muscle and lose fat while staying close to the same body weight and size. For most females, the meaningful result should be a more shapely and taut physique.

I also tell them about the benefits that can be derived from weight training. A properly designed and implemented weight training program may contribute to increases in strength, speed, endurance, and flexibility. Further benefits include a decrease in the chance and severity of musculoskeletal injuries and increases in psychological well being. Finally, because muscle is a metabolically active tissue, small increases in lean body mass through weight training may lead to a higher metabolic rate (more calories expended during both exercise and recovery) and potentially less body fat.

SMART EATINGMany female athletes who are afraid strength training will make them too big also fear that eating adequate calories to fuel their workouts will lead to unwanted weight gain. So another important method of ridding female athletes of their fear of gaining weight is to give them a constant flow of nutrition education.

We talk a lot about the benefits of eating a variety of wholesome foods throughout the day and immediately following exercise. I explain how doing so can provide a constant flow of energy, delayed onset of fatigue, enhanced healing of injuries, faster recovery from illness, improved concentration, and enhanced athletic performance. Ultimately, the benefits of healthy eating probably give athletes a competitive edge without spending more time practicing.

To assist with nutrition education, we recently hung four 32-inch flat screen television monitors in our weight room. We have the monitors hooked into a computer that continually runs a nutrition PowerPoint presentation throughout the day. Each slide then answers one nutrition question or presents one important nutrition fact. For example, one slide answers the question, "Why shouldn't you restrict caloric intake?" while another explains how to make great food choices. The PowerPoint idea has worked extremely well to educate our athletes without taking up any extra time.

We also educate them about what constitutes healthy and unhealthy eating in a psychological sense. Because we want to avoid disordered eating, we teach them what it means to have a balanced approach to meal planning.

For example, smart eating can include refined sugar and foods with fat. Many dietitians suggest eating your favorite "fun" foods in moderation as part of a balanced, nutrient-wise plan and as a strategy to keep from binging.

An example of an unhealthy eating attitude is the habit of labeling foods "good" or "bad." Female athletes should not shudder at the offer of a cookie or small bag of chips. High-caliber female athletes should feel relaxed and comfortable eating a wide variety of foods. Calories from the "bad food" list have no greater influence on weight than do the low calorie items from the "good food" list. A calorie is a calorie—weight gain results from going over your total caloric needs. What is needed is balanced meal planning.

I encourage balanced eating through both motivation and education. I motivate by first establishing a relationship of trust and loyalty to both the person and the athlete. The women I coach know that I care about them personally and am passionate about their athletic goals. They know this because I show up, inquire, listen, and try to understand them personally before professionally solving and leading. Then, I try to motivate them by sharing exchanges about the joys and purposes of eating. When the athletes and I talk there is little judgment, just education and some laughs.

I also try to demonstratively celebrate those who are healthy eaters in front of the group. I tell stories about champions and championship teams I have worked with who committed to purposeful eating and benefited because of it. I also remind athletes of the times they were successful because of proper fueling or failed because of their lack of healthy eating.
Furthermore, I practice what I preach. The women know that I generally fuel myself with healthy foods, but they also know that my "fun foods" are Little Debbies and Gummies.
When I hear athletes say, "I am having one brownie after I get done eating a balanced plate that consists of a rainbow of wholesome foods … and, yes, I did eat breakfast!" I know we're making strides. I give them a high five and a big smile.

MEETING STANDARDSAt the same time, we make it clear that our goals in the weight room are to increase their strength and lean body mass. We acknowledge reality around body image, but we also invoke standards and apply them through consequences and rewards.
Because many females are not that excited about the prospect of lifting weights and getting stronger, they tend to need more incentives than male athletes. Many females want to start with five pounds on each side of a bar or machine and progress by just two and a half pounds. This would mean we wouldn't arrive at a challenging resistance or improve body composition until a week before they graduated.

To ensure that our females are challenging their muscles, I assign the standards of "DF" meaning "demonstrated fatigue" and "NF" meaning "not to fatigue" next to all of the prescribed exercises. The effort level assigned to each exercise depends on the degree of technique involved. Low technique exercises have an NF assigned to them instructing athletes to stop when the goal repetition is achieved or technique significantly breaks down. DF means female athletes must continue to lift until they achieve demonstrated fatigue. Demonstrated fatigue means continuing until exercise technique is significantly affected or the player cannot achieve a repetition without assistance from her partner. DF's inspire trainees to start with a challenging weight load so they don't have to lift a weight 50 to 100 times before they reach DF and are allowed to stop.

Progressive improvement on both DF and NF exercises is also a measured standard. If athletes fail to meet these standards after being taught, reminded, and reinforced, they are told to leave the weight room for the day and their name goes on a "Throw Outs" list that is posted in the middle of the room. Those who do attain the standards are demonstratively celebrated and treated like the heroes they are.

A MATTER OF BALANCEJust as it is important to individualize strength and conditioning prescriptions, it is sometimes important to acknowledge aesthetic demands of the sport and how this affects body image. For example, if we are working with a naturally muscular and strong gymnast (mesomorph), we may decrease weight training volume and address higher priority rate limiting factors like explosiveness or flexibility. Additionally, if we are working with a slightly stocky wide framed diver (endomorph), we may decrease total quantity of weight training and add anaerobic conditioning to address the aesthetic requirements of her sport.
But, for the majority of the athletes we train, we build bodies with the goals of enhanced performance potential and reduced chance and severity of injuries, and we don't worry about whether or not the body is attractive. We empathize and work with those females who feel dissatisfied with their bodies. However, we do not compare athletes to the standards talked about in the general public, and we do not try to solve the "my muscles are too big" problem unless it legitimately exists.

To explain our focus, I sometimes tell a story about one female non-athlete and one female athlete who were eating at a local restaurant. When the non-athlete female was asked what she was doing she replied, "I'm eating lunch." When the female athlete was asked, she replied, "I'm building a champion."

Selfless commitment to team victory is our main focus. To accomplish it, we individualize sport-specific programs so that our athletes can safely and dominantly perform their sports skills. To this end, we listen, learn, educate, and lead.

At Michigan State, exercise is a tool for fitness, fun, health and victory, not weight control or body downsizing. To the Spartans, the weight room is a place to experience the joy of team interaction, connection, and accomplishment—a place to celebrate the strong, powerful, fit female.

Sidebar: ON THE LOOKOUTMost of the athletes I work with respond to the approach I describe in the mainbar of this article. Some are even enlightened by it and gain new confidence. But a handful do not hear what I'm trying to say no matter how much we talk. So I also am constantly on the lookout for athletes who have begun a cycle of disordered eating.

At the end of a hard week of training, I once asked an exhausted female athlete, "What have you been eating this week?" She replied, "Cereal." When I said, "Cereal and …" She replied, "Milk." That's right, she ate nothing but cereal and milk for five days straight.

Disordered eating often starts with restricted caloric intake and includes bizarre eating habits. Restricting whole food groups is an example of disordered eating, as is making very strict rules about what or where one eats. Other examples of behaviors that set off alarms include having an intense fear of weight and size gain, a constant preoccupation with food and thinness, a perception of being overweight when nothing could be further from the truth, significant weight loss, denial regarding significant weight loss, infrequent or absent menstrual periods, constant guilt regarding eating, always eating alone, and excessive exercising.

Disordered eating can create a variety of secondary problems, including insufficient intake of vitamins and minerals, low energy, impairment of immune function, reduced strength, poor motor control, fatigue, menstrual irregularities, or the loss of menstrual periods altogether. If untreated, loss of menses can lead to poor bone health, stress fractures, and premature osteoporosis.

Eating disorders can take the forms of anorexia and bulimia. Dangers associated with these situations can include loss of teeth and hair, heart conditions, kidney dysfunction, liver trouble, and even death.

People who have reached this point of being at war with their body don't need to be blamed. They simply need help in the form of professional guidance and treatment. When I see any signs of disordered eating, I communicate with our sports medicine department, which has an outstanding system of professionals in place to help athletes with eating disorders. The sooner a person can be treated, the more quickly she can overcome the issue.

Sidebar: SAYING YES TO LESSLast year one of my women's teams asked to do less work at a point in their off-season training. They said they were not physically recovering and were feeling mentally burnt out. I believe in listening and responding to the troops, so I did lessen the workload.

However, the team asked for less volume multiple times. I started getting frustrated because I secretly wondered if they were doing their part. Were they being responsible eaters for the goal of recovery? Did they have a rejuvenation plan? I suspected they were eating for appearance and not being professionals regarding their mental rejuvenation. In response, I researched and wrote a two-part test that I now hand out to people who ask to do less. If they can answer yes to at least 80 percent of the questions on both parts of the test, I consider reducing the volume of training. If they score less than 80 percent, I do not lower the planned workload. Below are the test questions:

Part I: Physical Recovery Test
· Do you eat breakfast every day?
· Do you eat and drink every three hours regardless of whether you are hungry or thirsty?
· Do you rest, via night sleep or a combination of night sleep and naps, between 7.5 and 8.5 hours every day?
· Are a majority (60-65%) of the foods that you eat carbohydrates (whole grains, fruits, vegetables)?
· Do you eat a balanced variety of foods to ensure adequate levels of sodium, potassium, calcium, and iron (bananas, meats, milk, cheese)?
· Is the color of your urine always light yellow?
· Do you drink at least two cups of water or sports drink two hours before and immediately after practices and competitions?
· Do you drink at least eight 8-ounce cups of caffeine-free nonalcoholic fluids every day?
· Do you drink one-half to one cup of water or sports drink every 15 minutes during practices and competitions?
· Does a majority of your dining plate look like a rainbow (filled with red, orange, yellow, and green foods)?
· Because alcohol affects metabolism, sleep, hydration, and your need for certain vitamins and minerals, do you abstain or strictly limit your frequency and amount?
· Do you consume calories during practice (one-quarter or one-half piece of fresh fruit, 3-4 pieces of dried fruit, 10-12 Teddy Grahams, 5-6 vanilla wafers, one-half an energy bar, one-quarter cup sports drink??
· Do you eat a combination of both carbohydrates and protein within 15 minutes of cessation of activity (practice and weight training)?
· Do you choose more wholesome and natural foods rather than heavily processed and refined foods?
· Do you increase the amount of food you eat per day during times of increased training?
· Are you menstruating? If you are not, is there a valid medical reason?

If you cannot answer "yes" to at least 13 of the 16 listed questions, we do not want to lower the frequency or volume of your training. Our experience demonstrates that you are choosing to do less than is your responsibility in order to win consistently. Organize and commit yourself to smart recovery strategies in order to fully ignite your talents and abilities. Stronger energy management skills can be the difference for you, your team, and your dreams.

Part II: Mental and Emotional Recovery Self-Test
Have you planned and taken mini vacations that allow you to "disconnect" from your sport personality and "reconnect" with other parts of who you are (your creative, adventurous, and fun sides)?

Have you planned and used daily "time-outs" when you can relax your mind and calm your emotions? Common time-out activities include naps, meditation, yoga, and deep breathing.
Do you have a list of activities that help you totally disconnect from your sport so that you are able to come back to it refreshed and hungry?

Do you implement some of your disconnect activities as part of your daily, weekly, and monthly rituals? Positive rituals are more successfully implemented when they are scheduled at the same time and on the same day every week. This way, you do not have to try to squeeze them in. Your positive rituals should be as common as waking up and brushing your teeth.

Do you keep a daily schedule to help you manage your time?
Do you delegate authority and responsibility to those around you?
Do you have realistic goals?
Do you exercise patience in your expectations of results?
Do you focus on success?

If you cannot answer "yes" to at least seven of the nine listed questions, we do not want to lower the frequency or volume of your training. Our experience demonstrates that you are choosing to do less than is your responsibility in order to win consistently. Organize and commit yourself to smart rejuvenation strategies in order to fully ignite your talents and abilities. Stronger energy management skills can be the difference for you, your team, and your dreams.

Tim "Red" Wakeham, MS, SCCC, is Assistant Strength and Conditioning Coach at Michigan State University. He is starting his 10th year at Michigan State and can be reached at: mailto:wakeham@ath.msu.edu.

Strength Training For Women: Debunking Myths That Block Opportunity

Strength Training – Strength Training For Women: Debunking Myths That Block Opportunity.
By William P. Ebben, MS, MSSW, CSCS; Randall L. Jensen, PhD
From The Physician and Sports Medicine- Vol. 26 - No. 5 – May 98
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In Brief: Traditional gender roles and differences in absolute strength have resulted in misconceived approaches to strength training for women. Male physiology, more than hormones, explains men's superior absolute strength. When other measures of strength are used, such as strength relative to cross-sectional area of muscle, the strength of men and women is nearly equal. Women who practice the same well-designed strength training programs as men benefit from bone and soft-tissue modeling, increased lean body mass,
decreased fat, and enhanced self-confidence.

Although American women first began strength training for sports in the 1950s to improve their performance in track and field, they have traditionally participated in strength training less than men. Such exercise has not been considered feminine, and a lack of research and information regarding the effects of such training on women has made it a predominantly male activity. Women's participation was particularly limited until 1972, when Title IX mandated equal access to educational programs--including athletics—for men and women in schools that receive federal funding. Since then, women's sports participation has burgeoned, traditional gender roles have loosened, and strength training has grown in popularity among active women.

Nevertheless, the social stigma and lack of accurate information persist and feed misconceptions that keep women away from strength training or prevent them from training in optimal ways (see "Dispelling Misconceptions," below). Though gender differences regarding absolute strength exist, women are as able as men to develop strength relative to total muscle mass. Consequently, women should strength train in the same ways as men, using the same program design, exercises, intensities, and volumes, relative to their body size and level of strength, so they can achieve the maximum physiologic and psychological benefits.

Gender Stereotypes
Our culture has traditionally viewed strength as a masculine trait and promoted a small, frail body as feminine. Consequently, girls have been discouraged from participating in gross-motor-skill activities and strength development. Such sex role stereotypes, formed early in childhood, can dictate behavior and limit women's and men's ability to express their full humanity. This means that some women may have never achieved their potential for physical well-being, fitness, and athletic participation.

The advent of the women's movement in the 1970s allowed many women to overcome such traditional socialization and participate more freely in sports and strength training. However, change occurs slowly, and physical strength and strength training are still not as common or accepted for women as they are for men.

A Gender Gap in Strength?
Research (1,2) on male and female strength potential reveals that women possess about two thirds of the strength of men. However, the measurement of strength in absolute terms fosters misconceptions about the strength of women, how women see themselves, and the way they exercise.

What causes this strength difference? Are there ways to conceptualize strength that affirm women's potential and encourage their development?

The role of hormones. Hormones play a role in the development of absolute strength in men and women, but the exact influence is not clear. The androgens that come from the adrenal glands and ovaries are the hormones most likely to influence strength. The most important androgens for strength development are testosterone and androstenedione. The absolute androstenedione response to weight lifting is similar in females and males (3).

The role of testosterone in strength development is complex and significantly more variable than that of androstenedione. Though women on average have about one tenth the testosterone of men (4), the level of testosterone varies greatly among women and influences women's strength development more than is typical in men (3). Women who have higher testosterone levels may have a greater potential for strength and power development than other women. An individual woman's testosterone level fluctuates, so a woman who is near the upper limit of her testosterone threshold may have an advantage in developing strength compared with other women. Though hormones may influence strength development potential among women, they most likely do not account for significant male-female differences in absolute strength.

Physiologic factors. Physiologic differences such as size and body structure are more likely explanations for the average absolute strength differences between men and women. For example, the average American male is about 13 cm taller than the average female and about 18 kg heavier. Men average about 18 to 22 kg more lean body mass and 3 to 6 kg less fat than women. Men typically have a taller, wider frame that supports more muscle, as well as broader shoulders that provide a greater leverage advantage.

The Strength of Women
Strength, however, should not be viewed in absolute terms. The gender differences in absolute strength, for example, are not consistent for all muscle groups. Women possess about 40% to 60% of the upper-body strength and 70% to 75% of the lower-body strength of men (3). Men may have an advantage in neuromuscular response time that results in greater force production speed than women (5). However, the distribution of muscle fiber types--fast and slow twitch--is similar in the two sexes, and women are able to use a greater portion of stored elastic energy than men during activities in which muscle is prestretched, such as in the countermovement prior to jumping.

More significantly, if the amount of lean body mass is factored into the strength equation, the relative strength difference between men and women is less appreciable. Based on a strength-to-lean-body-mass ratio, women are about equal in strength to men, and when strength is calculated per cross-sectional area of muscle, no significant gender difference exists. For example, a 15 cm2 cross-sectional area of an arm flexor has about 19 kg of force for both women and men (6).

Measuring strength in this way suggests that muscle at the cellular level has a force development capability independent of sex and that women benefit from strength training at least as much as men. Hence men and women should follow strength training procedures that include periodization--variations in the resistance training program that are implemented over a specific time--and exercise performed at intensities and volumes suited to physical ability and level of strength conditioning. Ultimately, each athlete should be assessed as an individual, and training programs should meet individual needs and goals, rather than those based on preconceived ideas about gender.

The Benefits for Women
Women benefit from strength training in several ways (table 1).


Table 1. Strength Training Benefits for Women*
Ø Enhanced bone modeling to increase bone strength and reduce the risk of osteoporosis
Ø Stronger connective tissues to increase joint stability and help prevent injury
Ø Increased functional strength for sports and daily activity
Ø Increased lean body mass and decreased nonfunctional body fat
Ø Higher metabolic rate because of an increase in muscle and a decrease in fat
Ø Improved self-esteem and confidence

-A number of factors may reduce or eliminate these benefits, including the exclusive use of weight training machines, training with loads that are too light, and not progressing in resistance or intensity.


Bone and soft tissue. Women, more than men, need to meet the minimal essential strain required for bone modeling to occur and ultimately for reducing the risk of osteoporosis. Prevention of osteoporosis requires above-normal axial skeletal loading (7,8). The strain tolerance for skeletal bone is believed to be more than 10 times the typical load that humans bear in daily activities (9). Since bone modeling is proportional to the degree of overload (the amount of stress applied beyond the normal load), the greater the overload-- within limits--the greater the amount of bone modeling. Bone modeling helps prevent fractures and insure against osteoporosis.

Cartilage, tendons, and ligaments also have minimal essential strain requirements. Optimal strength development requires loads and intensities that progressively increase the training stimulus or stress. Strong cartilage, tendons, and ligaments are essential for joint integrity, stability, and injury prevention.

Lean body mass and fat. Strength training also increases lean body mass and decreases fat; this results in less nonfunctional fat to carry and a greater proportion of lean body mass, which can provide functional strength. Compared to fat, muscle is metabolically active and increases metabolic rate, fat oxidation, and calorie consumption. Increased muscle mass and muscle cross-sectional area also correlate with increased strength. Participation in "functional" strength training exercises will develop functional strength and most likely improve performance, whether it is an increased ability to spike a volleyball or pick up a child.

Psychological well-being. Finally, studies (3) suggest that women who engage in strength training benefit from improved self-esteem. Female athletes appear to be able to balance strength and femininity; according to one survey, 94% of the participants reported that athletic participation did not lead them to feel less feminine. Strength training also appears to give women a sense of personal power, especially for women who have been raped or abused. Such psychological benefits arise from the physiologic changes that occur as a result of strength training and from the process of encountering and mastering physical challenges. Thus, both the process and the outcome of strength training benefit women (3).

Strength Training Guidelines
Since well-designed strength training programs include exercises with free weights and dumbbells and exercises that use body weight resistance, both women and men should include these in their training, and women should train at the same intensities as men.

The use of strength training machines and abdominal exercises need not be discontinued, but emphasis should be placed on the use of free-weight exercises including foot-based lower-body exercises such as the lunge, diagonal lunge, walking lunge, step up, lateral step up, and squat. Women should also include upper-body exercises that employ multiple muscle groups such as the bench press, incline press, latissimus dorsi pull-downs, pull-ups, and back extensions. Finally, women who have developed a strength base should consider total-body exercises such as the push press, hang clean, power clean, clean and jerk, and snatch.

A training program should also stress multiplanar, multijoint, functional exercises because they develop intermuscular coordination, proprioception, and balance and result in strength that transfers to sports and daily activities. For example, the step-up exercise is superior to using the leg-extension machine because it offers functional strength for walking up a flight of stairs while carrying bags of groceries. For athletes who play foot-based sports such as basketball, the squat is superior to using the leg-press machine, since the squat is functionally more similar to the sport and requires greater balance and weight and body control in all three planes of motion.

Fostering Strength
Though sex role stereotypes still powerfully shape our culture and behavior, physical strength is no longer the sole domain of men. More and more women are claiming strength as their own through participation in sports and especially in strength training programs. Such participation helps to counter the stereotypes and fosters an appreciation of strength as desirable for women.

References
Hettinger J: Physiology of Strength, Springfield, IL, Charles Thomas, 1961
Holloway JB: Individual differences and their implications for resistance training, in Baechle TR (ed): Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning, Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics, 1994, pp 151-162
National Strength and Conditioning Association: Position Paper: Strength Training for Female Athletes. National Strength and Conditioning Association, Colorado Springs, 1990
Hakkinen K, Pakarinen A, Kyrolainen H, et al: Neuromuscular adaptations and serum hormones in females during prolonged power training. Int J Sports Med 1990;11(2):91-98
Karlsson J, Jacobs I: Is the significance of muscle fiber types to muscle metabolism different in females than in males? in Borms J, Hebbelink M, Venerando A (eds): Women and Sport, an Historical, Biological, Physiological and Sports Medical Approach. Basel, Switzerland, S Karger, 1981
Ikai M, Fukunago T: Calculation of muscle strength per unit cross sectional area of human muscle by means of ultrasonic measurement. Int Z Angew Physiol 1968;26:26-32
Petranick K, Berg K: The effects of weight training on bone density of premenopausal, postmenopausal and elderly women: a review. J Strength Conditioning Res 1997;11(3):200-208
Talbott S: The female athlete triad--not just for athletes. Strength Conditioning 1996;18(2):12-16
Nigg BM, Herzog W (eds): Biomechanics of the Musculo-Skeletal System. Chichester, NY, J Wiley, 1994

Dispelling Misconceptions
Recent studies counter several widely held beliefs that may limit the physiologic and psychological benefits of weight training for women.

Myth 1: Strength training causes women to become larger and heavier. The truth is, strength training helps reduce body fat and increase lean weight (1). These changes may result in a slight increase in overall weight, since lean body mass weighs more than fat. However, strength training results in significant increases in strength, no change or a decrease in lower-body girths, and a very small increase in upper-extremity girth. Only women with a genetic predisposition for hypertrophy who participate in high-volume, high-intensity training will see substantial increases in limb circumference.

Myth 2: Women should use different training methods than men. Women are often encouraged to use weight machines and slow, controlled movements out of a fear that using free weights, manual resistance, explosiveness (high velocity, low force), or exercises that use body weight as resistance will cause injury. In fact, no evidence suggests that women are more likely to be injured during strength training than men. Proper exercise instruction and technique are necessary to reduce the risk of injuries for both men and women. All strength training participants should follow a program that gradually increases the intensity and load. Furthermore, sport-specific exercise should closely mimic the biomechanics and velocity of the sport for which an athlete is training (2). The best way to achieve this is to use closed-kinetic-chain exercise that involves multiple joints and muscle groups and the ranges of motion specific to the sport. For example, the push press--rather than triceps kickbacks--offers a superior arm extension training stimulus for improving the ability to throw the shot put in track and field.

Myth 3: Women should avoid high-intensity or high-load training. Women are typically encouraged to use limited resistance, such as light dumbbells, in their strength exercises. Often such light training loads are substantially below those necessary for physiologic adaptations and certainly less than those commonly used by men. Most women are able to train at higher volumes and intensities than previously believed. In fact, women need to train at intensities high enough to cause adaptation in bone, muscle, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. When exercise intensity provides insufficient stimulus, physiologic benefits may be minimal (3). To gain maximum benefit from strength training, women should occasionally perform their exercises at or near the repetition maximum for each exercise.

References
Fox E, Bowers R, Foss M: The Physiological Basis for Exercise and Sport, Madison, WI, Brown and Benchmark, 1993
Stone MH, Borden RA: Modes and methods of resistance training. Strength Conditioning 1997;19(4):18-24
National Strength and Conditioning Association: Position Paper: Strength Training for Female Athletes. National Strength and Conditioning Association, Colorado Springs, 1990

Mr Ebben is a strength coach at the University of Wisconsin in Madison. Dr Jensen is an assistant professor in the Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation at Northern Michigan University in Marquette.

Older Athletes - From Experience With Women Scullers

Older Athletes - From Experience With Women Scullers
By Jutta Lau
From FISA Coaches Conference Papers 2001
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The most important thing for high performance in sport and for the length of any competitive career is success. Success clearly determines the length of training at the high performance level of every athlete.

Take Steven Redgrave for example. If he had come 4th, 5th or 6th at the World Championships or Olympic Games, he would surely not have continued in rowing for so long.

Additionally it is important to enure that one year is not exactly the same as the next. If that were the case, then I as a coach would have already lost the way.

If we compare oarswomen from the youth area and their motiation to compete at a high level, it is worthwhile to look at what are the substantial factors which have encouraged them to take up competitive rowing – their parents, teachers, school friends, other friends or through the club. All of these peer groups can have an ifluence on the individual athlete. Those who treat sport in a positive way and have encouraged training at a competitive level , contribute fundamental requirements for good development. A negative attitude will have the opposite effect, and lead to athletes giving up sport at a competitive level and following other interests.

The motives for a developing rower competing at a hogh level are different from those who are at a senior level. In the younger rower the motivating factors are such things as training in a squad, parents who drive the rower to training, the goo feeling of being in a team at the club, the enjoymet of a crew form your own club representing at important events, winning and losing together, spending time with rowing friends outside of training, e.g. going to the cinema, eating ice cream, and going to other sports and events.

The more experienced and the more successful the oarswoman becomes the more varied and all embracing, complex and complicated is the coaches work with the athlete. In senior women’s rowing the external influencing factors – that is to say influences through partners or boy friends, managers, the federation, employers and media – are more intensive, broader and more multi faceted. This requires that the coach works much more individually with each rower, to determine what is important to achieve success. The awareness and interest of the rower in politics and business increases, and the personal obligations and commitments are greater. This demands of the coach that he or she provides clarity and precision, straightforwardness, good support and the power to persuade the rower, the ability to leave her alone at times, to trust her, to rein in her ambitions at times, to design and implement training sessions that are consistent, wel directed and convincing.

In this respect the media can complicate matters. They are capable of affecting the unity of the coach and the athlete. The way successes are valued in the media and in the eye of the public can lead the athlete to lose interest and confidence in and to drop out of the sport. For example Nils Schumann form Germany, the 800m Gold Medal winner in Sydney 2000, a young athlete with a relaxed attitude. The risk of not succeeding can lead to the career being abruptly terminated.

Nevertheless, the work and the experirnce with older athletes can be a great challenge for every coach.

For the athlete, their age, and the length of their competitive career are quite secondary, if they can still be successful! On the contrary, the athlete has a higher consciousness of her capacity and can better evaluate her own performance. On this basis she can achieve what she wants professionally, materially and existentially. The motivation ot measure herself in races against hard competition remains very much in the foreground.